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HANDBOOK OF ATHLETIC GAMES 



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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO » DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/handbookofathletOObanc 



HANDBOOK OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

FOR PLAYERS, INSTRUCTORS, AND 
SPECTATORS 



COMPRISING FIFTEEN MAJOR BALL GAMES, TRACK 

AND FIELD ATHLETICS AND 

ROWING RACES 



BY 
JESSIE H. BANCROFT 

Assistant Director Physical Training, Public Schools, New York City; Ex-Secretary 
American Physical Education Association; Formerly Executive Secretary, 
Girl's Branch, Public School Athletic League, New York; Fellow, Ameri- 
can Association for the Advancement of Science; Author of " School 
Gymnastics," *' Games for the Playground, Home, School and 
Gymnasium," ** The Posture of School Children," etc. 

AND 

WILLIAM DEAN PULVERMACHER, A.B., LL.B. 

Flushing High School, New York City; Formerly Inspector of Athletics, Public 
Schools, New York City; Member of Officials' List, American Intercol- 
legiate Football Rules Committee ; Former Player and Coach of 
Baseball, Football, Hockey, and Basketball, at the Col- 
lege of the City of New York and Trinity School 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1916 

All rights reserved 






Copyright, 1916, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1916. 



J. 8. Gushing Co. — Berwick «fe Smith Co. 
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 

JAN^0I9I6 

©CLA418514 



fc PREFACE 



This book is written for two classes of people : for those, 
first, who do not know the games represented, and who, 
either as teachers, players, officials, or spectators, want a 
clear, working description ; and, second, for those who do 
know the games, but who need a ready reference, clearly 
classified, to rules and information for all parts of the play. 

The usual official rules of an athletic game are far from 
a description of the game, and most descriptive literature 
on the subject is lacking in the definiteness of rules. The 
present volume aims to combine these two elements — 
descriptive and technical — in the most practically usable 
manner ; to be, in short, an athletic Baedeker, guiding 
clearly and briefly to the main points of a game, and giv- 
ing details in such manner that they may be recognized 
as such at a glance, and used or passed over as conven- 
ience dictates. 

To construct a game from its rules alone is almost an 
impossibility. One reason for the lack of constructive 
information in rules is that they are mostly of a negative 
character : they tell players what not to do far oftener 
than they tell what may be done, and positive directions 
are usually to be discovered only by inference. On the 
other hand, most descriptive books are prepared so ex- 
clusively from the viewpoint of traditional usage that they 
unconsciously take for granted a large amount of infor- 
mation which many readers do not possess. The very 



vi Preface 

language is often unintelligible, as each game has a dis- 
tinct vocabulary of its own. 

The range of games here covered and their treatment 
are distinctive of the present volume. Within the two 
covers are comprised all of the major athletic games and 
events — in Division I, fifteen leading ball games, arranged 
in alphabetic order, and in Division II, track and field 
athletics and rowing races ; each Division has an opening 
chapter on general athletic usage and procedure. This 
forms a collection of practical and closely related material 
not before brought together. For each game or event 
there is, for the novicfe or spectator, a general description ; 
for the player, a carefully classified grouping of rules and 
directions according to the logical divisions of the game ; 
for players and instructors, coaching directions and a 
selected bibliography for those who wish to have a variety 
of opinion on these matters ; for officials, an explicit codi- 
fication of duties and rules over which each official has 
jurisdiction ; and there are also given typical records for 
contestants of different ages in track and field events, and 
for each game official specifications and cost of outfit, and 
a glossary of technical terms. 

A greatly intensified public appreciation of all that 
goes to the upbuilding of health is leading into sports 
and games many inexperienced people either as players, 
instructors, or officials ; and any one thrown much with 
educational institutions, or playground workers, must ap- 
preciate the w^ide need for constructive playing directions 
for athletic games. Hundreds of people, both men and 
women, coach and officiate at games they have never them- 
selves played, and the ethical standard of sport, as well as 
the success of the games in other ways, is largely affected 
by the knowledge and competence of such individuals. 

How many spectators, in the throngs that crowd the 
grand stands, have an intelligent idea of the games they 



Preface vii 

observe ? Scores of foreigners and others have to ^ask if 
the pitcher and catcher in baseball are playing against the 
batter or with him, and ask analogous information about 
other games. 

Unquestionably, fair play and honesty in athletics are 
largely related to the knowledge which players and officials 
possess of the rules of a game, yet it is usual for both 
to pick up at random information about rules, fouls, and 
general procedure — to gather it, as all traditions are 
gathered, at haphazard. Any one who has seen the re- 
sult of such a method, or lack of method, either among 
youthful athletes, or candidates for positions as playground 
instructors, can but appreciate the need for a clear codifi- 
cation of directions for each game or event. Clear in- 
structions cannot insure moral strength or will power for 
the enforcement of laws ; but they can remove the excuse 
of ignorance, which is back of much laxity in athletic 
procedure. 

It is hoped that this book will thus contribute to the 
enjoyment of games, to clean, honest play, and to a true 
spirit of sportsmanship. The writers are heartily in accord 
with the rapidly growing sentiment that in our American 
athletics an importance is too often placed on trophies, 
meets, and publicity, which overemphasizes the element 
of winning and tends to exclude a wholesome pleasure in 
the playing of the games themselves. To have the hardi- 
hood and determination that plays to win, is to have some 
of the strongest moral qualities which enter into sport and 
which it, in turn, should cultivate ; but to carry specializa- 
tion and training beyond the reasonable limits of amateur 
achievement, is to partake of the inherent nature of pro- 
fessionalism, and that means unfair competition under 
amateur standards, however strictly one may observe the 
rules that define the letter but not the spirit which sepa- 
rates business and pleasure in sport. 



viii Preface 

Those who train our youth in their games have one of 
the greatest of opportunities for cultivating in their pupils 
a discriminating moral sense, that will manifest itself not 
only in sport, but in all the affairs of life. 

December, 1915. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The authors are indebted to many friends for the read- 
ing of manuscript, and for valuable suggestions and assist- 
ance in many ways. In particular, acknowledgments are 
due Mr. John Reilly, captain and third baseman of the 
Yale, 1914, 'varsity baseball team; Mr. W. W. White, of 
the Board of Governors of the Englewood Golf Club ; Mr. 
Morgan O'Brien, Jr., Greens Committee, Shinnecock Hills 
Golf Club ; Mr. Gardner White, former interscholastic golf 
champion; Mr. Daniel Meehan, forward on the 1912-13- 
14 Columbia University basket ball teams ; Mr. Harry Le 
Gore, Yale fullback, 1914; Mr. Alfred Von der Rupp, of 
the Yale rowing squad ; Mr. W^alter A. Kinsella, world's 
professional court tennis champion ; Mr. Frank Ellison, 
former goal tender of the Brooklyn Skating Club, Hockey 
Club of New York, and Wanderer hockey teams of the 
American Amateur Hockey League ; Mr. Paul Pilgrim, 
former 400- and 800-meter Olympic champion (Athens, 
1906), Captain New York Athletic Club track team; Mr. 
R. W. Holder, manager of the Overseas Wanderer team 
of the New^ York State Soccer League ; Mr. George Hal- 
lock, Jr., of the Crescent Athletic Club (Brooklyn) lacrosse 
and hockey teams ; and Mr. Rupert Thomas, Jr., intercol- 
legiate 100-yard champion (1912), and member of United 
States Olympic team, 19 12. 

To various publishers thanks are due for courtesies ex- 
tended, and in particular to the publishers of Spalding's 
Athletic Library. The rules of all games in this volume 
are those of the official handbooks published in this 
Library. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

PREFACE . V 

ORGANIZED ATHLETICS — Definition of athletic games 

— Training — Form — Amateur and professional stand- 
ards — Prizes and trophies — Athletic organizations — 
Athletic games for different ages and sexes — Competi- 
tion, Individual, Class, and Team — Non-competitive 
awards — Match games — Tournaments; round-robin se- 
ries; elimination series — Championships — Officials . 1 

HOW TO INFLATE A LACED BALL .... 23 
HOW TO MARK COURTS AND FIELDS ... 26 

PART I 
BALL GAMES 

BASEBALL 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION 27, 29 

FIELD — Infield or diamond — Bases — Batter's box — 
Pitcher's plate — Catcher's place — Backstop — Foul 
lines — Three-foot Hne — Coachers' lines — Players' 

"benches 33 

TEAMS: INNINGS 36 

BATSMAN — Batting order — Batter's place — Batter's form 
in play — Batsman's duties in general — Strikes and balls 

— Batting — Summary of rules for batsman — The batter 
is out — The batter is given first base without interference 

— The batter is given a home run 38 

xi 



xii Table of Contents 

PAGE 

BASE RUNNER— Runner for first base — Runners for second, 
third, and fourth bases — The base runner may return to 
his base without being put out — The base runner must 
return to his base, and may be put out — Coaching — 

Signals 44 

COACHERS .51 

PITCHER — In general — Skill — Rules for the pitcher . .51 
CATCHER — Place and duties — Catching balls — Catcher as 
fielder — Catcher's return of the ball — Catcher becomes 
baseman for home base — Catcher's signals ... 54 
BASEMEN — In general — First baseman — Second baseman — 

Third baseman 57 

THE SHORTSTOP , . . .60 

FIELDERS — Fielder's place — Ground covered — Fielder's 

catching — Fielder's throwing .61 

SCORE — General — As batsman — In the field — Summary 

of score -T- Method of keeping score . .... 64 

OFFICIALS— Umpire— Score keeper 70 

MATCH GAMES . 72 

OUTFIT — Ball — Bat — Base plates and bags — Dress . . 73 

HISTORY 75 

BIBLIOGRAPHY . 76 

GLOSSARY , n 

BASKET BALL 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION 85,87 

COURT— Side and end lines — Goals — Free throw line — 

Free throw lane — Center circle ..... 88 

TEAMS — Forwards — Guards — Center — Substitutes — 

Numbers 91 

THE GAME— Choice of goals — Putting the ball in play — 
Passing and advancing the ball — Throwing for goal — ■ 
Penalty for fouls ; free throws — Axioms — Out of bounds 93 

FOULS AND PENALTIES: CLASSIFIED LIST— Methods 
of playing ball — Methods between players — Throwing 
for goal — Player or ball out of bounds — Time, delay, 
lateness , . . 102 



Table of Contents 



Xlll 



SCORE 

MATCH GAMES 

OFFICIALS — Referee — Umpire — Timekeeper - 
OUTFIT — The ball — Baskets or goals — Dress 

HISTORY 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

GLOSSARY 



• Captains 



105 
107 
108 
111 
112 
113 
113 



BASKET BALL (LINE GAME) 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION 115, 117 

COURT — Dimensions — Field lines — Goals — Free throw 

line — Free throw lane — Center circle .... 118 
TEAMS — Substitute — Choice of goals .... 120, 121 
THE GAME— Putting the ball in play — Passing and ad- 
vancing the ball — Throwing for goal — Free throws ; 
penalty for fouls — Out of bounds ..... 122 
FOULS AND PENALTIES: CLASSIFIED LIST— Methods 
of playing ball — Methods between players — Throwing 
for goal — Player or ball out of bounds — Time, delay, 
lateness 
SCORE . 



OFFICLA.LS 
OUTFIT . 
HISTORY 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
GLOSSARY . 



128 
134 
134 
138 
139 
139 
139 



FIELD HOCKEY 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION 141, 143 

FIELD — Dimensions and lines — Striking circle — Goals — 

Net — Flags 144 

TEAMS — Forwards — Inside right and left — Right and left 

wings — Half backs — Full backs. — Goal keeper . . 145 



xiv Table of Contents 



PAGE 



THE GAME — Choice of goals — Bully-off — General direc- 
tions and rules of play — Rules for the stick — Rules for 
players — Offside play — Methods of playing the ball — 
Roll in — Advancing the ball — Dribbling — Passing — • 
Intercepting the ball 150 

PENALTIES FOR FOULS — Free hit — Penalty bully — 

Corner — Penalty corner — Penalty goal .... 157 

CLASSIFIED FOULS AND PENALTIES — Players — Per- 
sonal interference ^ Obstructing a player — Offside play 

— Rough play — Ball — Manner of playing ball — Roll-in 

— Ball sent behind goal line — Fouls made in penalty 
shots — Breaking rules for free hit — For penalty bully — 

For corner hit — For penalty corner . .... 161 

SCORE— Match games 164 

OFFICIALS — Umpires — Linesmen — Captains . . . 166 
OUTFIT — Goals — Flags — Sticks — Finger protectors — 

Ball — Gloves — Shoes — Shin guards — Dress for women 168 

HISTORY 170 

BIBLIOGRAPHY . 172 

GLOSSARY . .172 



FOOTBALL 

FOOTBALL — Different games 175,177 

FOOTBALL (INTERCOLLEGIATE) 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION 179, 181 

THE FIELD — Dimensions and lines -^ Goal . . . 186 

TEAMS — The various positions — Center — Guard — Tackle 

— End — Quarter back — Half backs — Full back . . 187 
THE GAME — Start — Kick-off — Scrimmage formation and 
rules — Ball put in play by snapper-back — Snap-back — 
Advancing the ball — After a kick-off — After a snap- 



Table of Contents xv 



PAGE 



back — Forward pass — Running and tackling — Methods 
of playing the ball — Batting — Kicking — Place kick — 
Drop kick — Punt — Fair catch — Ways of making a goal 
and of scoring — Touchdown — Goal from touchdown — 
Punt-out — Goal kicked from field — Touchback — Safety 192 

SCORE 212 

OFFICIALS — Referee — Umpire — Linesman . . .212 
OUTFIT— Ball — Dress . . . ... . . .216 

HISTORY 217 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 218 

GLOSSARY 219 



GOLF 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION 223,225 

THE COURSE OR LINKS— Tees — Through the green — 
Fair green — Hazards — The rough — Holes : Putting 
green 226 

CLUBS — Driver — Brassy — Cleek — Mid-iron — Mashie — 

Niblick — Putter 228 

FORM — Grip of Clubs — Stance — Addressing the ball — 
Strokes; definition of; kinds of; rules for — Penalty 
stroke 230 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF GAMES— Matches or competi- 
tion — Match play — Stroke competition or medal play — 
Partners and opponents — Single or twosome — Three- 
some — Foursome — Thdree-ball match — Four-ball match 
— Best ball match — Bogey competition .... 234 

PRECEDENCE ON THE LINKS — The honor : at the first 
tee — In successive matches — In a threesome or four- 
some — In best-ball and four-ball matches — The honor at 
second and successive tees — Order of individual play 
through the green — Playing out of turn .... 236 

PUTTING THE BALL IN PLAY: SUMMARY — Ball 

teed; dropped; placed; re-teed 239 



xvi Table of Contents 



PAGE 



DETAIL : TEEING OFF— Rules for— If played from outside 

teeing ground — If ball falls off tee — Ball hit out of bounds 240 
PLAYING THROUGH THE GREEN — The approach . 242 
PUTTING OR HOLING OUT— Rules for— Ball consid- 
ered to have been holed out — Order of play on putting 
green — Play in opponent's turn — Play on opponent's ball 
— Interference of balls — '' Stymie " — Balls within six 
inches of each other — If player's ball moves competitor's 

ball — Ball knocked into hole 242 

Assistance in hoHng out — Direction of hole may be 
pointed out — Flag stick maybe left in the hole — 
Line of putt may not be marked — Loose impedi- 
ments may be removed — Casual water on putting 

green 246 

SCORE — In match play — In stroke competition — A tie — 
Score to be called — Score cards — Players may not waive 
rules or penalties . . . . . . . . 248 

HANDICAPS 251 

GENERAL RULES FOR PLAYING THE BALL THAT 
APPLY TO ALL PARTS OF THE GAME : 
The He of the ball — If hidden — Covered in sand . . 252 
Loose impediments — Definition of — When they may be 

moved 253 

Obstacles that may be removed — List of — When ball 

may be lifted . 253 

Casual water — Definition of — Ball lost or lying in or near 254 

Hazards — Rules for 254 

Water hazards — Ball to be played — Ball lost in . . 256 
Moving the ball ; Playing or interfering with ball in 
motion — Rules for — To move a ball in addressing 
it — If ball at rest be moved by opponent — By his 
ball — On putting green — In threesomes, foursomes, 
etc. — If ball hit a player — Lodge in moving vehicle 257 

Ball may be lifted 257 

Playing wrong balls — Through the green and in hazards 

— On the putting green ,.,.,, 260 



Table of Contents xvii 

PAGE 

Lost balls — Definition of — In match play — In stroke 
competition — If lost in water — If lost out of bounds 

— If lost ball found later 261 

Advice and information — Player may not ask or receive 

— General direction may be asked — May ask for 
opponents' score — May ascertain if opponent's ball 

is out of bounds ........ 262 

OFFICIALS — Committee in charge of competition — Um- 
pire — Referee ......... 263 

OUTFIT — Balls — Clubs — Caddie bags — Shoes — Hole 

rims — Flags and disks 263 

HISTORY 264 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 265 

GLOSSARY 267 

HANDBALL 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION 273, 275 

COURT — Indoor — Dimensions — Ace line — Inner line — 

Tell board — Outdoor courts ...... 275 

BALLS 276 

PLAYERS 277 

HITTING THE BALL . . . . .277 

THE GAME— Singles — Start — Serving— Receiving . 277 

General rules and points of play — Hinders — Fouls . 279 

Doubles .... - 280 

SCORE 281 

OFFICIALS— Referee — Scorer ...... 281 

OUTFIT— Ball — Dress 282 

HISTORY .282 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 282 

GLOSSARY 283 



ICE HOCKEY 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION 285, 287 

FIELD — Dimensions — Goalposts — Goal net , . . 288 



xviii Table of Contents 



PAGE 



TEAMS — Number and position of players — Substitutes — 
Duties of players — Goal keeper — Point — Cover point 

Forwards — Captain 289 

THE GAME — Start — General rules and points of play — 

Offside play 293 

FOULS— Sticks — Players — Puck— Penalties . ' . .300 

SCORE — Ties .301 

MATCH AND CHAMPIONSHIP GAMES .302 

OFFICIALS — Referee ~ Umpires — Timekeepers — Penalty 

timekeeper — Captains . . . . . . . 303 

OUTFIT — Goals — Nets — Sticks — Puck — Skates — 

Gloves — Leg and shin guards 308 

HISTORY 310 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 310 

GLOSSARY 311 

INDOOR BASEBALL 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION 313, 315 

FIELD — Infield or diamond — Bases — Pitcher's box — Foul 

lines . . c . . 318 

TEAMS — Innings .320 

BATSMAN — Batting order — Batsman's place — Batsman's 

duties in general — Strikes and balls — Fair and foul hits — 321 
Summary of rules for batsman — Batsman should run for 
first base — Batsman is out — Entitled to first base with- 
out interference 324 

BASE RUNNER — In general — Rules for base running : 
Runner for first base — Runners for second, third, and 
fourth bases — Three-foot limit — Overrunning bases — 
Runners may start — Forced run — Stealing bases — A 
runner must return — Base runner is out — Entitled to a 

base — Coaching 326 

COACHERS 332 

THE TEAM IN THE FIELD: PITCHER— Duties in gen- 
eral — Summary of rules for pitcher — Pitcher's place — 
The throw — Strikes and balls 333 



Table of Contents xix 

PAGE 

FIELDERS — Rules for fielders 336 

CATCHER 337 

SCORE — Tie or drawn game — Records — For each pitcher 

— For catcher ......... 338 

OFFICIALS — Umpires— Score keeper 341 

MATCH GAMES 342 

OUTFIT — Ball — Bat — Bases — Home plate — Dress . . 342 

HISTORY 344 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 344 

GLOSSARY 344 

LACROSSE 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION 345, 347 

FIELD — Dimensions — Goals — Net — Goal crease — Center 

circle 349 

TEAMS — Number and names of positions-^ Covering — Gen- 
eral function of players — Detail duties; Goal keeper — 
Inside home — Outside home — First, second, and third 
attacks — Center — Point — Cover point — First, second, 
and third defense — Substitutes, at the opening of the 
game — During a game ....... 351 

THE GAME — Choice of goals — Formation of line-up — The 
start — Facing the ball — Facing after a foul — After out 
of bounds — After ball lodging ...... 356 

RULES AND POINTS OF PLAY— Mode of playing the 
ball — Interference with opponents — Checking — Body- 
checking — Blocking 358 

FOULS AND PENALTIES: SUMMARY OF FOULS — 
The Crosse and its use — Personal interference — Block- 
ing — Players — Ball — Penalty and procedure for fouls — 
Free throw .......... 360 

SCORE — Time — Change of goals — Goal score — Tie games 360 

OFFICIALS — Referee — Umpires — Timekeepers — Field 

captains 364 

OUTFIT— Crosse — Ball — Goals — Net — Dress. . . 369 

HISTORY 371 



XX Table of Contents 

PAGE 

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . .372 

GLOSSARY . . . . . . ... o 373 



LAWN TENNIS 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION 377,379 

COURT — Dimensions and lines — Net — Backstop . . 380 
THE GAME — Varieties of; singles, doubles, three-handed 

— Singles — The court — Choice of court or service — 

The server — The striker-out 382 

FAULTS; LETS; FORFEITED STROKES — Explanation 

of — Summary of faults — Summary of lets — Loss of stroke 387 
DOUBLES: FOUR-HANDED GAME— Court — Choice of 

court or service — The serve — Return of ball . . . 389 

THREE-HANDED GAME 393 

FORM IN PLAY .393 

SCORE . . . .394 

MATCH GAMES — Handicaps . . . . . .397 

OFFICIALS— Referee — Umpire— Linesmen . . .398 
OUTFIT — Ball — Racket — Racket presses — Markers and 

tape — Net — Posts — Backstops — Dress . . . 400 

HISTORY . 402 

BIBLIOGRAPHY . 402 

GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . .403 



POLO (EQUESTRIAN) 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION . ... 407,409 

FIELD — Dimensions and lines — Goal 409 

TEAMS — Substitutes — Formation of players — Eligibility . 410 
THE GAME — Choice of ends — Putting ball in play — Start 
— Knock-in — Safety — Out of bounds — Time — Method 
of playing the ball — Fouls and their penalties — Sum- 
mary of fouls for Riding ; Ponies ; Players ; Playing the 

ball — Accidents 412 

SCORE — Goals — Fouls — Safety — Ties — Game interrupted 419 



Table of Contents xxi 

PAGE 

OFFICIALS — Referee — Timer — Scorer — Goal judges — 

Field captains ......... 420 

PONIES 423 

OUTFIT — Balls — Mallets (sticks) — Goals — Dress . . 424 

HISTORY 424 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 425 

GLOSSARY 425 

SOCCER FOOTBALL 

GENERAL EXPLANATION 427, 429 

FIELD — Dimensions and lines — Flags — Goals — Net — Goal 
area — Penalty area — Penalty kick mark — Corner kick 

area 429 

THE GAME — Teams— Choice of sides— Start— Kick-off 
— Advancing the ball — Making a goal — Goal kick — 
Corner kick — Time — Score ...... 432 

METHODS OF PLAYING THE BALL— Place kick — 

Free kicks — -Throw in — Dropped by referee . . . 437 
METHODS AND RULES FOR PLAYERS — Using hands, 

tripping, charging, etc. — Offside and onside play . . 438 
SUMMARY OF FOULS AND PENALTIES . .443 

OFFICIALS — Referee — Linesmen 444 

OUTFIT — Ball — Goal net — Flags — Dress . . . .446 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 447 

GLOSSARY (See Intercollegiate Football) . . . .447 

SQUASH TENNIS 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION 449, 451 

THE COURT— In general — Back wall line — Detail meas- 
urements — Telltale — Wall service line — Center line — 
Floor service line 452 

THE. GAME — Choice of serve — Service: hard-in — Re- 
turning the ball, or hand-out ...... 454 

GENERAL RULES AND POINTS OF PLAY — Playing 

the ball — Let 456 

SCORE 457 



xxii Table of Contents 



PAGE 



OFFICIALS 458 

OUTFIT — Balls — Racket— Dress . ...» 458 

HISTORY .......... 458 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 459 

GLOSSARY ......:... 459 

VOLLEY BALL 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION 461, 463 

COURT— Boundary lines — Net . . . . . .463 

TEAMS — Places — Rotation — Substitutes — Players on time 464 
THE GAME — Choice of courts or service — Service . . 465 

RULES 467 

PENALTIES 468 

SCORE 468 

OFFICIALS — Referee — Linesmen 468 

OUTFIT— The ball — Net — Movable standards . . .469 
BIBLIOGRAPHY . 470 

PART II 

TRACK AND FIELD GAMES AND 
ROWING 

GENERAL PROCEDURE 

CLASSIFICATION OF 471,473 

LIST OF EVENTS 473 

CLASSIFICATION OF ATHLETES — Novice — Junior — 
Senior — Champion — In elementary schools — High 

schools — Weight classification 474 

ROUTINE FOR THE COMPETITOR — Registration — 
Entry — Handicapping — Report to clerk of course — Re-^ 
ceive number — Costume — Weighing in — On time for 

each event . . 476 

RUNNING RACES — Start — Form — Crouching start — 

Standing start — Signals — Penalties for false starts . . 478 



Table of Contents xxiii 

PAGE 

THE RACE— Rules— Fouls— Finish — Heats . . .482 
OFFICIALS — Qualifications — Referee — Clerk of the course 
— Starter — Inspectors — Judge of walking — Judges at 
the finish — Timekeepers — Scorer — Field judges — Mar- 
shal — Press steward — Assistants ..... 486 
SCORING — Ties— Score cards or programs . . .503 

HISTORY 505 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 507 

GLOSSARY o .... 508 



RUNNING AND WALKING RACES 

KINDS AND DISTANCES 511,513 

SPRINT RACES (DASHES) —Definition — The course — 
Form — Start — The race — The Finish — Rules — Fouls 
— ^ Protests — Speed records ...... 514 

MIDDLE DISTANCE AND DISTANCE TRACK RACES s 
MARATHON — Definition — Distances — The course — 
Form — Start — The race — Changes in gait — Finish — 
Rules — Fouls — Speed records ..... 519 

RELAY RACES — Description — Distances and teams — The 
course — Arrangement of teams — Handicapping — Start 

— The race — Touchoff: baton — 'The finish — Heats — 
Rules: fouls — Officials — Speed records . . . 526 

HURDLE RACES — Description — Distances and hurdles — 
Distances between hurdles — The course — The race — 
The course: straightaway or curved — Finish — Form — 
Table of distances, hurdle heights, and records for vari- 
ous classes .......... 538 

CROSS COUNTRY RUN — Explanation — Distances — Score 

— Records .......... 545 

WALKING — As a competitive event — The course — Start 

— The walk — Form — Finish — Fouls — Officials — 

Records 547 

As non-competitive athletic exercise ..... 549 



xxiv Table of Contents 

JUMPING AND POLE VAULTING 

PAGE 

RUNNING BROAD JUMP — The field — Order of jumping 

— Preliminary — The jump — Form — Fouls — Score — 
Officials — Outfit — Records 553 

STANDING BROAD JUMP— 'The Field — The Jump — 

Fouls — Score — Officials — Outfit — Records . . . 557 

THREE STANDING BROAD JUMPS — Explanation — 

Measurement — Rules — Record 560 

RUNNING HOP, STEP, AND JUMP — Explanation — 

Measurement — Records ....... 561 

RUNNING HIGH JUMP— The Field — Order of jumping 

— Preliminaries — The . Jump — Form — Score — Hand- 
icaps — A tie — Officials — Outfit — Records . . . 562 

STANDING HIGH JUMP— Explanation— Records . •. 568 
THE POLE VAULT— The Field — Poles — Order of vault- 
ing — Preliminaries — The Vault Rules — Form — Score 

— Officials — Outfit— Records 569 

WEIGHT THROWING 

SHOT PUT — The Field — The Shot — Order of competing 

— The Put — Fouls — Measurement : Score — Officials 

— Outfit — Records .579 

THROWING THE DISCUS — Description — The Field — 

The Discus — The Throw — Free style — Greek style — 

Fouls — Measurement — Records ..... 584 
THROWING THE HAMMER — The Field — The Hammer 

— The Throw — -Form — Measurement; Score — Records 587 
THROWING THE 56-LB. WEIGHT — The Field — The 

Weight — The Throw — Measurement — Score — Record 590 
THROWING THE JAVELIN — The Field — The Javelin 

— The Throw — Measurement — Records . . . 592 
BASEBALL DISTANCE THROW — The Field — The 

Throw — Score — Officials — Records .... 594 
BASKET BALL DISTANCE THROW— The Field — The 

Throw — Score — Officials — Records .... 596 



Table of Contents xxv 

ROWING RACES 

THE COURSE — Crews — Stroke — Coxswain — Regattas — 
Officials — The race — Start — The stroke — Steer- 
ing — Outfit 612 

HISTORY • . . 612 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 612 

GLOSSARY 613 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



ORGANIZED ATHLETICS 



DEFINITION OF ATHLETIC GAMES. — 

Athletic games, like other games, consist of a compe- 
tition in strength, speed, skill, or endurance, pro- 
gressing through a regular mode of procedure until a 
climax is reached in which one of the contestants wins. 
Athletic games differ from other games in (i) always 
calling for a considerable amount of physical exertion ; 
and (2) in emphasizing and equalizing the element 
of competition. This equalization is accomplished 
through a strict definition of procedure (rules and 
regulations) and a penalizing of their infringement 
(fouls), both of which measures are necessary to insure 
equality in the competition. 

Many forms of sport or exercise, such as skating, 
sailing, and mountain cHmbing, are athletic in vigor, 
but (except in races) lack the organized procedure, 
and the element of contest or competition, that would 
bring them within the range of games. Similarly, 
many games have definitely formulated rules, such as 
active parlor games, cards, and checkers, but lack the 
vigor that would entitle them to the term ^^ athletic." 



2 Organized Athletics 

The two elements, vigor and strict definition of rules, 
are necessary for a truly athletic game. 

The term ^^ athletics " is often used to designate 
track and field events, but is not properly to be limited 
to those events. Track games are chiefly running 
races, the shorter distances usually being run over 
especially prepared running tracks; field games 
are competitions in skill and strength, and consist 
chiefly of various kinds of jumping or vaulting for 
height or distance, and of weight throwing, as of the 
shot, hammer, or discus. 

Almost any strenuous game or competition may be 
put in the athletic class by closely defining the regu- 
lations that will insure equal competition. Prac- 
tically all of the great ball games belong to the athletic 
class. 

COACHING: TRAINING. — Athletic games re- 
quire much practice to develop and strengthen heart, 
lungs, muscular power or neuro-muscular skill. In- 
deed, such games are largely a test of these powers. 
For some time immediately preceding important 
meets or games, players should take up systematic 
practice (^^ go into training")- This training often 
includes, besides a program of physical exercise, a 
special hygienic regimen for diet, sleep, bathing, etc. 
No one can remain long at this highest point of physi- 
cal efficiency, a falling off of power occurring soon 
after this highest point is reached. Such deteriora- 
tion is called getting stale. The skill or wisdom 
of a trainer consists largely in getting his team to its 
highest point of efficiency at just the right time for a 
competitive event. 



Coaching: Training: Form 3 

Instruction in the form or technique of any athletic 
game is called coaching. In the more compHcated 
team games, coaching from some leader is essential 
for formations and signal play, as well as for the par- 
ticular form and skill of each individual on the team. 

FORM. — Neuro-muscular control, skill, or form 
is fully as important an element in athletic games as 
the power and endurance of heart, lungs, and muscles. 
This skill and form show in the position and move- 
ments of the body or its parts during the different 
phases of play ; as, for example, in the tilt and swing 
of trunk and legs over the bar in jumping ; the manner 
of handling the ball in many different games ; or the 
strokes in golf or tennis. The positions and move- 
ments of " good form " are those which experience 
has shown will give the surest and most economical 
use of force, and success or failure is often chiefly 
determined by a player's mastery of form. It is there- 
fore of great importance that the beginner in any game 
receive instruction from experts on the form of play, 
and practice it thoroughly until it becomes habitual. 
Incidentally it will be found that, such is nature's 
combination of qualities, the most economical form 
for the use of force is also the most graceful. 

AMATEUR AND PROFESSIONAL STAND- 
ARDS. — Every amateur player who takes part in 
match games, or is likely to do so, should establish 
his amateur standing, and be able to produce his cre- 
dentials of such standing, by registration with some 
organization concerned with these standards. Every 
club should be so registered with a national organiza- 
tion. 



4 Organized Athletics 

One of the most iqiportant questions iq athletics is 
the distinction between amateur and professional 
standards, as only on a basis of clear distinction be- 
tween these two classes of players can competition 
be kept equal and a true spirit of sport maintained. 

The amateur plays for the pleasure of the game, and 
for its physical, mental, moral, and social benefits. 
Amateur skill is that which may be cultivated in the- 
leisure time available from the serious business and 
affairs of life. As soon as a player exceeds this amount 
of attention to a game, he gains an unfair advantage 
and thus places himself in another class. 

A professional player in any game or sport is one 
who plays, not alone for the pleasure and benefit of 
the game itself, but as a business, devoting to it an 
amount of time that develops skill beyond the average 
attainable by one who takes it up as a recreation. 
Professional players usually follow a game partly or 
wholly as a means of income. Thus the entire status 
of the professional in sport, including his interest, 
motive, and skill, is on a different plane from that of 
the amateur. 

From the classic days of Greece to the present time, 
playing for money, or for prizes of monetary value, 
has been considered the main distinction between the 
amateur and the professional in sport. This includes 
compensation as an instructor or coach as well as for 
playing the game. To play with or against a profes- 
sional has also been held to disqualify an amateur as 
such and rank him as a professional. The money 
reward, however, is merely a symbol of a fundamental 
difference in spirit, motive, and attainment, and there 



Amateur Standards 5 

is a strong latter-day movement to substitute the posi- 
tive definition of amateurism that, by laying greater 
stress on other quaUties, will be more basic and do 
greater justice to both classes of players. 

For it would seem, on the one hand, that many 
players who in some casual way infringe the rules of 
amateurism never place themselves essentially in the 
professional class. On the other hand, there can be 
no doubt that intensive training on one phase of play ; 
overemphasis on the hectic excitement of public 
competitions, until the more normal pleasures of a 
game lose interest ; the constant prominence of prizes 
or trophies as an end for which to strive ; the intense 
partisanship of interinstitutional competition; the 
use of substitutes for other purposes than to take the 
place of disabled players — all of these elements tend 
to obscure or defeat the true tone and spirit of amateur 
standards, and introduce elements characteristic of 
professional play. 

There is no stigma in being a professional athlete ; 
there is a stigma in competing with amateurs when 
one's interest and motives in, and advantages for, 
a game make competition unequal. If the public is 
willing to pay to see exceptional skill, any one is priv- 
ileged to earn his livelihood in whole or in part by 
such means and still retain the respect of his fellow- 
men; but by so doing he places himself in a class 
apart from the great mass of players, who will always 
be amateurs, and follow sport as a recreation.^ 

1 The reader interested in the question of amateur standards is 
referred to a report of the Committee on Amateur Law of the Ath- 
letic Research Society, Clark W. Hetherington, Chairman, in the 



6 Organized Athletics 

ATHLETIC ORGANIZATIONS. — There are 
athletic organizations, national in scope, that control 
most of the amateur athletic activities of the country, 
by prescribing uniform rules for games played under 
their auspices, establishing amateur standards, and 
conducting championship competitions. Prominent 
among these are the Amateur Athletic Union, The 
Young Men's Christian Association Athletic League, 
The National Collegiate Athletic Association (which 
appoints members of the Rules Committees for various 
games), and The Intercollegiate Association of Ama- 
teur Athletes of America (concerned chiefly with con- 
ducting games) . There are many other organizations, 
covering smaller geographical territory and specific 
classes of institutions, such as educational institutions 
of various grades, playgrounds, settlements, Sunday 
schools, etc. Many of thpse more limited organiza- 
tions are affiliated with one or another of the national 
bodies. In addition, there are independent national 
organizations for most of the larger team games, such 
as golf, tennis, hockey, etc., which prescribe uniform 
rules for their respective games and for the conduct 
of tournaments. 

The great baseball leagues are professional organiza- 

Physical Education Review for March, 1910; a further report by 
Dr. John Brown, Chairman, published in Physical Training for 
January, 191 5, and to other proceedings of the Athletic Research 
Society ; to the Handbook of the Young Men's Christian Associa- 
tion Athletic League (an especially discriminating and constructive 
definition), the Handbooks of the Amateur Athletic Union, and the 
Intercollegiate Association; for an admirable exposition of the 
spirit of English amateur standards, the reader is referred to an 
article on "American Sport from an English Point of View," by 
H. J. Whigham, in the Outlook for November 27, 1909. 



Athletic Organizations 7 

tions and govern the terms under which professional 
players may be engaged, the territory to be covered 
by each organization, etc. Being professional, they 
are not affiliated with these amateur interests. 

There is no intercollegiate athletic association for 
women's colleges, a general sentiment prevailing 
against competition between women from different 
institutions. Within the women's colleges and sec- 
ondary schools, however, intramural athletics are 
carried on, as outlined in this chapter under '' Lists 
of Athletic Games.'' 

The Athletic Research Society should be mentioned 
for the valuable scientific work it is doing to establish 
amateur standards, and to improve many other fea- 
tures of athletic practice. 

ATHLETIC GAMES FOR DIFFERENT AGES 
AND SEXES. — The scope of formal athletics is 
indicated by the following lists of games, for which 
the larger national organizations prescribe rules. 
Lists are also given from typical organizations for 
elementary and high schools for boys and girls, and 
for women's colleges, as indicating the kinds of 
athletic activities found suitable and popular for the 
various ages and conditions represented. It should 
be understood that most of the standard ball games are 
played by members of the adult organizations in addi- 
tion to the events listed. Members of any adult 
organization may play other games than those in the 
ofl&cial lists, and retain amateur standing, so long 
as they observe the amateur standards prescribed by 
their organization. 



8 



Organized Athletics 



AMATEUR ATHLETIC UNION.- 



Basket ball 

Billiards 

Boxing 

Fencing 

Gymnastics 

Handball 

Hurdle racing 

Jumping 

Lacrosse 

Fence-vault 

Kicking 



Pole vaulting 

Putting the shot and throw- 
ing the discus, hammer, 
weights, and javelin 

Running 

Swimming 

Tugs of war 

Walking 

Wrestling 

Potato race 

Water polo 



THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION 
ATHLETIC LEAGUE adds to the above list : 

Kicking Snap under bar for distance Volley ball 

Rope climbing Snap under bar for height Handball 

Skating Eight potato race Water polo 

Ring vault Relay potato race Boxing 

Rope vault Sack race 

P'ence vault Three-legged race 



THE INTERCOLLEGIATE ASSOCIATION OF AMA- 
TEUR ATHLETICS OF AMERICA prescribes rules for 
the following track and field events : 



Running, — loo, 220, 440 yards, 

one-half, one, and two miles 
Relay racing 
Walking 
Hurdle racing 
Running high jump 
Running broad jump 



Pole vault 

Putting the shot (16 pounds) 

Throwing the hammer (16 

pounds) 
Throwing the discus 
Javelin throwing 



WOMEN'S COLLEGES. — While there is no intercol- 
legiate association for women's colleges, the following 



Athletics for Different Ages 



track and field events used at Vassar College, may 
be considered typical of institutions of this class : 



50 yard dash 
75 yard dash 
100 yard dash 
100 yard hurdle 
300 yard hurdle 
Running high jump 
Running broad jump 



Standing broad jump 
Hop, step, and jump 
Fence -vault 
Shot put (8 pounds) 
Baseball throw 
Basket ball throw 



THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS ATHLETIC LEAGUE OE 
THE CITY OF NEW YORK, the pioneer organization 
of its type, sanctions the following games and events : 



ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 



Baseball 
Indoor baseball 
Basket ball 
Soccer football 
Swimming 
Skating 



Track and Field Events 

^^Dash" — 50, 60, 70, 100 

yards 
Relay — 360, 440, 880 yards 
Standing broad jump 
Rimning high jump 
Shot put (8, 10, and 12 
pounds) 



HIGH SCHOOLS 



Baseball 

Basket ball 

Intercollegiate football 

Lacrosse 

Marksmanship 

Rowing 

Skating 

Soccer football 

Track and Field Events 
Cross country runs 
"Dash'' — 100 yards 
Run, — 220, 440, 880 
yards, i mile 



low 



high 



120 



Hurdles, 

yards 
Hurdles, 

yards 
Relays — 440, 880 yards, 

and I mile 
Running broad jump 
Running high jump 
Pole vault 
Putting the shot (12 

pounds) 
Throwing the discus 



10 



Organized Athletics 



THE GIRLS' BRANCH OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
ATHLETIC LEAGUE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK, 

a pioneer and typical organization for girls of elemen- 
tary and high school age, does not sanction interschool 
competition, or many track and field events. It has 
put folk dancing in its athletic list by evolving a 
method of judging and competition. A considerable 
list of sports are sanctioned by the Girls' Branch as 
given in the following list, and a new method of 
award for their use is explained under ^' Non-com- 
petitive awards." 



Walking 
Swimming 
Folk dancing 
Relay Races ^ 



ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 

Potato relay ^ 
All-up relay ^ 
Hurdle relay ^ 
Pass Ball relay ^ 



Shuttle relay ^ Basket ball throw 



Team Games 
End ball i 
Captain ball ^ 
Basket ball 
Punch ball 



HIGH SCHOOLS 



General Athletics 

Walking 

Swimming 

Ice skating 

Horseback riding 

Golf 

Tennis 

Folk dancing 
Track and Field 

Simple relay ^ 

Shuttle relay ^ 

Potato relay ^ 



Hurdle relay 
Basket ball throw 
Team Games 

Indoor baseball 
Field hockey 
Basket ball 
Volley ball 
Captain ball ^ 
Newcomb 
End ball ^ 
Punch ball 
Pin ball 



^ For this game see '* Games for the Playground, Home, School, 
and Gymnasium." By Bancroft (The Macmillan Co.). 



Competition ii 

'^The Girls' Branch believes in running as an activity for 
girls and strongly favors the training of endurance in running 
for a much longer distance than that approved in the rules 
given here. It believes, however, that this should be a phys- 
ical training procedure and not subject to the excessive phys- 
ical, mental and emotional strain of competition. Similarly, 
it beHeves that all girls should be trained to proper form in 
jumping, so as to avoid harm whenever jumping becomes neces- 
sary in any of the activities or emergencies of life. It does not 
favor the extreme effort necessary for high and distance jump- 
ing, especially in competition." 

COMPETITION. — One of the most interesting 
and valuable elements in games of any kind is the 
competition whereby players pit against each other 
their wits, skill, strength, speed, or endurance. This 
may be in the form of an individual contest, a group 
contest, or the more highly developed and complicated 
form of contest called team play. 

INDIVIDUAL COMPETITION is characteristic of track 
and field athletics and of some ball games. In track 
and field games, the competition is essentially indi- 
vidual, even when a group, competing for the honor 
of their college or organization, is called a team. In 
such cases the combined score of the different con- 
testants — whether all enter each event, as in the 
pentathlon and other all-round contests, or each appears 
in only his specialized events — determines the win- 
ning institution ; but there is none of the more com- 
plicated interplay between different players that dis- 
tinguishes the term ^^ team play." 

Some of the most popular ball games are essentially 
individual competition. This is true of golf, tennis, 
handball, and squash. 



12 Organized Athletics 

CLASS ATHLETICS are a recent development, for 
elementary and secondary schools, that offer a form 
of competition in which all of the members of a class, 
or a given percentage of them, try their skill in sys- 
tematic succession in an event, the combined score 
making a class record. This does away with danger 
of the excesses that often characterize unmodified 
individual competition, with its emphasis on star 
performers ; and it enlists in the athletics practically 
all the members of a class instead of only a few. 

TEAM PLAY. — The term '' team," as appKed to 
games, means a group of players combining effort 
for a common end. The highest form of team organ- 
ization is that in which the individuals support and 
aid each other, each taking an understood part, to a 
common end. These parts differ according to the 
special abilities of the players or the needs of the game. 
For example, a player's strength, height, or agility 
largely determine whether he shall be a forward, half- 
back, guard, or goal keeper. In the truest and highest 
team play, each player comprehends the needs of the 
shifting conditions of a game, and adapts his own 
play to whatever will most assist his team mates to 
bring about the desired result. He helps pass the 
ball to the best goal thrower or kicker ; or he takes the 
goal keeper's place if that player be obliged to leave 
his goal unguarded in some exigency of the play ; or 
he guards or engages the opponents, to allow a team 
mate to make some advance toward their goal. 
These are a few of the ways, varying in the different 
games, in which the more highly organized team 
games call on the cooperative power ; the ability to 



Non-Competitive Awards 13 

comprehend a complicated situation ; to adjust one's 
self instantly to it ; to play any part that helps, how- 
ever inconspicuous ; to unite with others for a common 
end. Well- trained teams act as a unit, and the game is 
as much one of wits as of muscle. In many of these 
games, of which baseball and football are conspicuous 
examples, signals are used to indicate certain forma- 
tions, or some understood sequence in play. While 
this takes some of the initiative from the individual 
player, it again illustrates the united cooperation for 
a common end. The influence of this cooperative 
play on character is very marked, and aft'ords one of 
the highest benefits to be derived from this class of 
games, the power for social adaptation or adjustment 
for which it calls being one of the greatest elements 
of success in business or social relations. The power 
to play in cooperative groups is a comparatively late 
psychological development in the individual, the 
tendency for real team play showing itself first 
at about eleven or twelve years of age. 

It has been stated that real team play is peculiar to 
the Anglo-Saxon race. Play in opposing groups is 
found in oriental games and in the play of compara- 
tively young children of all countries. But these are 
not team games in the highest sense of the word, the 
parts taken by the different players being homogene- 
ous, with no opportunity for cooperation except that 
the efforts of each player contribute to the total result 
for his '' side.'' 

NON-COMPETITIVE AWARDS. — BeKeving that the 
true spirit of amateur sport is often defeated through 
playing for trophies that are to be won in competition, 



14 Organized Athletics 

one of the writers introduced a few years ago, in the 
public schools of New York City, a plan of outdoor or 
all-round athletics, for girls, whereby an award of a 
pin is made at the end of the season to each girl for a 
certain amount of time devoted to athletic activities. 
The ultimate design of the pin is a star, a ray being 
added for each successive year. The plan has been 
highly successful and very popular. The pupils are 
rewarded for the express purpose for which the 
athletic organization exists; namely, for devoting 
a certain amount of time each week to exercise, and 
not for beating some one else. The writer believes that 
the fundamental principle involved in this method 
should have wider recognition, and that it will do much 
to induce a more balanced interest in sport. The ac- 
tivities specified include the playing of team games, 
so that the excellent moral qualities required for 
strenuous competition are cultivated, but not made 
the chief or culminating object of the season's training. 
MATCH GAMES. — A match game, or championship 
game, is one played to determine which of two or 
more contestants is the superior player, the champion- 
ship being awarded to the player or team that wins. 
Such match games take various forms, according to 
the number of contestants. The simplest form of 
challenge is that in which one player, team, or organ- 
ization challenges another, there being only the two 
concerned. Football is a game played in this way, 
by a given team's challenging individually only a few 
organizations in a season, as it is too hard a game for 
tournaments. Three or four hard games are the most 
that should be expected of a football team in a season. 



Tournaments 15 

A club or organization may conduct open champion- 
ship games for a given class of institutions, as colleges ; 
or for a certain geographical territory, as a city, or 
state, or district; or such competition may be na- 
tional or international in scope. For many of the 
more popular games, such as tennis, golf, polo, rowing 
races, etc., the official national or international organ- 
ization for that particular game conducts champion- 
ship games annually, or at longer intervals. 

TOURNAMENTS. — Baseball, basket ball, hockey, 
and other games which make lighter demands on the 
players, and which may be played against a consider- 
able number of competing teams, are played in tourna- 
ments. A tournament may take the form of a 
round-robin series or an elimination series. 

ROUND-ROBIN SERIES. — In this plan of competi- 
tion, each team plays every other team. It is there- 
fore used when not too many organizations are 
competing, — usually from three to fi.ve. In such a 
series, team A plays B, C, D, and E ; team B plays 
A, C, D, and E ; and so on, until each team has played 
every other team. 

The winning team is that one which wins the great- 
est number of games, or the largest percentage of the 
total number of games played, in the series. 

ELIMINATION SERIES. — This plan is used where so 
many teams are to compete that it would be im- 
practicable for each team to play every other. Then 
it is decided by lot, or by assignment by the officials 
in charge (and as delegates, or manager) which two 
teams shall play against each other in the first and 
succeeding trials. For example, it may be decided 



i6 Organized Athletics 

that in the first trials A and B shall play against each 
other, C and D against each other, E and F, G and H, 
and I and J. The winning team in each of these pairs 
is then paired by the same method with one other 
winning team ; the winners from the second series of 
games are paired off, and so on, until, finally, all are 
eHminated except the final winning team, which is 
the champion of the series. 

In one or more of this series of trials there may be 
an odd team without a competitor. This is called 
a " bye," and that team is assigned to play with a 
team in the following series ; in other words, it is not 
compelled to compete in its particular series in order 
to have the right to compete in the following series. 

CHAMPIONSHIPS. — The winner in a championship 
contest is said to hold the championship title, and this 
is held until some other player or team wins in sub- 
sequent games. Sometimes the winning contestant 
must be met and defeated in order that the title may 
pass to another; this is the case in some games of 
individual competition, such as the national and 
international championships in golf and tennis. Some- 
times the championship is annual, the 1914 champion, 
for example, holding the championship only for that 
year, and not necessarily entering the 191 5 games of 
the same class, so that the 191 5 champion may, or 
may not, have to defeat the previous year's champion 
in order to win. Sometimes, especially in track and 
field events, it is a record, as well as an individual, that 
is competed against. Thus, the intercollegiate record 
in the running high jump for a given year may be 
unbroken (unsurpassed) for many subsequent years. 



Handicaps 17 

and yet each year's games will have its champion, 
who makes the highest record for that particular year, 
though it may be less than the highest intercollegiate 
record.^ 

In any games the same champion may hold the title 
indefinitely by winning in successive years. 

HANDICAPS. — When a very wide margin of dif- 
ference exists between the abiUty of two players, com- 
petition between them would obviously be impracti- 
cable were one not handicapped. A handicap is an 
extra burden placed on the more proficient player, 
whereby he allows to the less proficient a certain 
number of points on his score, or an equivalent, before 
a comparison in the two scores begins. Just what 
form the handicap will take varies for different games. 
For example, in golf a certain number of strokes are 
allowed the less proficient player by the one who is 
handicapped ; in a contest in high jumping a certain 
height is expected of the more proficient contestant in 
addition to the height cleared by his competitor; in 
a race, the handicapped player must cover a greater 
distance.^ 

The official organization for each game that is 
susceptible of handicap regulations has established 
a systematic method and scale for handicaps. 

A scratch player is one who starts or plays at par. 
That is, he starts from the regular starting line. In 
a handicap race the runner who is handicapped is a 
^' scratch man," and those to whom he gives an al- 
lowance start in front of him. The term is derived 

^ See *' General Procedure for Track and Field Athletics " in this 
volume. 

c 



i8 Organized Athletics 

from the scratch, or starting Hne in a race, though 
applied to other events. 

PRIZES AND TROPHIES. — These are usually limited 
in form or value in all amateur sports; that is, an 
amateur may not compete for a money prize, or for 
trophies of great intrinsic value, nor may he sell his 
trophies. 

A championship or title is essentially an honor, 
and there may or may not be tangible evidence of 
it in the form of a prize or trophy. Sometimes each 
contestant in match games is given a permanent 
souvenir in the form of a pin or medal, while the cham- 
pion receives in addition a loving cup or other prize 
or trophy to hold until won at subsequent games by 
some other contestant. 

OFFICIALS. — For informal games it is not usual 
to have officials; for all challenge or match games, 
they are essential. 

The head official of a game is usually either an Um- 
pire or Referee, the particular title being specified 
in the ofiicial rules for each game. The duties per- 
taining to these two titles are sometimes identical, 
though in games where both officials are engaged, the 
duties are different. Other officials customary for 
ball games are Linesmen, who judge of certain phases 
of a game in relation to boundary lines; Scorer; 
Timekeeper; and in track and field games. Judges 
for the various events; Inspectors; Clerk of the 
Course; and Marshal. (See '^Officials" in ^'Gen- 
eral Procedure for Track and Field Athletics,'' in this 
volume.) 

The method of selecting officials is prescribed by the 



Officials 19 

official rules of all games, and is set forth in detail 
for each game in the present work. In every instance 
the head ofi&cial, at least, must be approved by both 
parties to a contest. 

The success of a match game depends immeasurably 
on the officials and too much care cannot be taken in 
their selection. While every official of a game should 
preferably be experienced as a player of the game over 
which he officiates, it does not follow that every player, 
however expert, would make a good official. Keen, 
quick perception ; an immediate, w^orking knowledge 
of rules ; power of accurate judgment and quick 
decision; absolute impartiality; superiority to any 
personal considerations ; and a strong, unflinching will 
to enforce rules and decisions — these are some of the 
qualities needed for a successful official. It will 
readily be seen that they are not easily found. 

For some games, there are, in some localities, central 
committees that form lists of authorized officials ; and 
the custom is spreading of training officials. This 
latter procedure cannot be too highly commended. 
When it is more generally used we shall have a higher 
ethical standard in many athletic games. 



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HOW TO INFLATE A LACED BALL 

The inflation of a laced ball is a delicate and com- 
plicated task. 

Each ball purchased is provided with (i) a leather 
cover ; (2) rubber bladder ; (3) leather lacer ; (4) needle 
for lacing. In addition there is needed a pump. 
Hand pumps are used, but are much more difficult 
to manipulate, and less satisfactory in other ways, 
than foot pumps ; and the latter are strongly advised. 

The leather cover usually outwears several bladders. 
In buying a ball, it is well to get one or two extra 
bladders and extra lacers. 

The steps for inflating a ball are as follows : 

(i) The rubber bladder is placed inside the ball be- 
fore being inflated. To do this, fold the bladder, to 
avoid injury as it passes through the opening in the 
cover, and after it is inside straighten it out, keeping 
in the fingers the rubber neck or tube of the bladder. 

(2) Next, draw the rubber neck through the hole in 
the flap of the leather cover. 

(3) Begin the lacing of the ball before the bladder 
is inflated, as there is then much less liability of 
puncturing the rubber. Tie a knot in one end of 
the lacer or leather thong, to prevent its being pulled 
entirely through. Put the opposite end of the lacer 
through the eye of the metal needle that comes with 
the ball. Take the first stitch in one of the end holes, 

23 



24 



Inflating a Ball 




INFLATING A LACED BALL 

I. Placing the rubber bladder inside the leather cover. 2. Drawing the neck 
of the bladder through the hole in the flap of the leather cover. 3. Beginning to 
lace the ball before it is inflated. 4. Inflating the ball. 



inserting the needle from the inner side of the cover and 
puUing it through toward the outside, in a direction 
away from the opening. To insert the needle toward 
the opening instead of away from it is certain, in a 



Inflating a Ball 



25 



large percentage of cases, to lead to puncture or injury 
of the bladder. 

Each stitch is taken in the same manner, alternately 
toward one side and then the other, until the lacer has 
passed through each hole. 

(4) When the lacing is all loosely in (but not pulled 
up), attach the neck of the bladder to the nozzle of 




INFLATING A LACED BALL 

5. Turning back and winding the neck of the bladder before it is inflated. 
6. Pushing the neck of the bladder under the leather cover before drawing it tight 
and fastening the laces. 



the pump, place the ball on the floor near the latter 
(if a foot pump), and inflate to its full capacity, 
remembering that a finished ball is round and hard. 

Never inflate a bladder with the breath, as this 
injures the rubber. 

^ (5) When the ball is fully inflated, hold firmly in 
the fingers the neck of the bladder while detaching 
it from the pump ; then turn or double the neck over 
sharply on itself and wind it tightly with a rubber 



26 Marking Courts 

band, to prevent escape of air. It is very inadvisable 
to use cord for this, as it is liable to cut the rubber. 

(6) When the neck of the bladder is thus folded and 
bound, push it well under the leather cover. 

(7) Finish the lacing by drawing tight the loose 
stitches, either with the fingers or a buttonhook. 
It is well to avoid unnecessary use of the needle, as it 
is very Uable to puncture the bladder. When the 
stitches are all drawn tight, the end of the lacer should 
be laced, or otherwise drawn back under them. 
This will usually be sufficient to fasten it and hold it 
in place. 



HOW TO MARK COURTS AND FIELDS 

Where boundary lines are important in a game and 
need to be seen from a distance, as in many ball games, 
they should be plainly marked. On a gymnasium 
floor, black paint for permanent diagrams is the best. 
For out of doors, white linen tape may be had, with 
wooden staples and pins for fastening to the ground, 
costing from $3.50 to, $6 per set for a court the size 
of a tennis diagram. A liquid mark may be made of 
whitewash, and a dry mark by mixing two parts of 
sand with one of whiting. Marble dust or slaked lime 
also make good dry marks. Roller markers for plac- 
ing either wet or dry marks in lines of even width may 
be had at from $1 to $5 each. 



PART I 
BALL GAMES 

(In alphabetic order) 



BASEBALL 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION — Baseball, called 

the national game of the United States, is played by 
two opposing teams of nine men each, hence the term 
" baseball nine/' It is played on a level field in 
which a square, 90 X 90 feet, is outlined obhquely to 
the boundaries of the larger inclosure, giving it the 
general appearance of a diamond, from which comes 
the term '' baseball diamond." The four angles or 
corners of this diamond (or infield) are bases and form 
the strategic points of the game. 

The score is made by one team at a time alternately 
throughout the game. This is the team '' at bat.'' 
A player of this team enters the field as batsman and 
tries to bat the ball, so it will fall forward, either 
within the diamond, or beyond it, forward of the foul 
lines ; this ball is thrown to him by the pitcher of 
the opposing team. The pitcher and catcher are 
opponents of the batsmen and base runners. If suc- 
cessful in his strike, the batsman instantly becomes a 
base runner. One point is scored for a team, for each 
player who succeeds in making a run ; that is, a com- 
plete circuit of all four bases, from the home plate, 
where the batting is done, to first, second, and third 
bases in their regular order, and so again to the fourth 
base or home plate. This may be done in one dash, 
called a ^^ home run," or by stopping in the circuit 
at any or all of the other bases, as safety points. 

29 



30 Baseball 

When a batsman has either been put out (as herein- 
after described), or has succeeded in making first 
base, another member of his team comes to the bat, 
and so on. There can never be more than four men in 
the field at once from the team having its inning; 
that is, one mxan at the bat, and one on each of the other 
three bases. 

There are strictly defined rules under which the 
batting and base running may be done ; also by which 
the opponents may intercept a base runner by tagging 
him with the ball (in the hand, not thrown), or while he 
is between bases, or by reaching a base with the ball 
before he can get there. This tagging puts a runner 
^^out" — that is, retires him from the game tempora- 
rily, until his turn to bat comes again. After three men 
on his side have been '' put out,'' his team, in its turn, 
goes into the field on the defensive and the opposing 
team goes to bat. A half inning lasts until the team 
that is batting and running bases has three men put 
out. Each team is entitled to nine such half innings, 
and that team wins which has the highest score {i.e.j 
has made the largest number of runs), at the end. 

Besides putting out its opponents while they are 
running bases, the defensive team may be able, through 
its pitcher^ to put out a batter before he becomes a base 
runner, by pitching the ball so that it takes unexpected 
curves when it gets near him, making him miss it. 
A batsman is entitled to three good balls, or three 
'' strikes.^' A good ball is one so pitched that it 
passes over the home plate (the fourth base, beside 
which the batter stands), and, in passing, is at a 
height not greater than his shoulder nor lower than his 



General Description 31 

knee. Whether he hits at such a ball or not it is 
called a '' strike." A poor ball is one that goes outside 
these Kmits and is called a " ball/' as distinguished 
from a ^^ strike." If a batsman mistakes a ball for a 
strike and hits at it, it is counted against him as one 
of the three strikes to which he is entitled. Although 
the pitcher is his opponent, he is constrained to pitch 
at least three good balls (strikes) out of six, as a fourth 
poor ball from the pitcher entitles the batsman to 
become a base runner, even though he should have 
missed two good balls pitched to him. 

The Umpire calls out for every ball pitched whether 
it be a ball or a strike. ^^ Four balls ! " is a bad call 
for the pitcher to hear, as it means he has let the bats- 
man escape him on poor pitching ; and '' Third strike I " 
is a critical call for the batsman to hear, as it means he 
is ^^ out." If, however, the third strike is dropped by 
the catcher, the runner is entitled to attempt to reach 
first base before the ball can be tossed to the first 
baseman. When, however, first base is occupied by 
a base runner and less than two men have been retired, 
the batter is automatically out on the third strike, 
whether the ball be caught or dropped. 

The batsman's primary object is to hit the ball so 
far that he will have time to run at least to first base 
before the ball can be thrown back there to the baseman 
guarding it. He may be able to make a two-base hit 
(one on which he can go to both first and second 
bases), or a three-base hit, or even send the ball so far 
that he can make all four bases on it — called a 
" home run," one of the most exciting events in a 
ball game. 



32 Baseball 

The object of the opponents is, of course, to keep 
the team that is having its half inning from scoring 
runs. This they do by putting out three of its men 
as soon as possible, the half inning being ended when 
three men are out. The nine men of the defensive 
team are disposed over the field in a way that helps 
to the utmost to protect the bases and get a pitched 
or batted ball back to the players protecting the bases 
as quickly as possible. Besides the pitcher and 
catcher, the opposing team consists of a baseman 
(base keeper or guard) at each of the three bases, 
fi.rst, second, and third; a shortstop, who does the 
main work in fielding (catching) batted balls that go 
between second and third base; and three fielders, 
who field the balls that are batted far into the out- 
field {i.e., beyond the diamond). 

The official who has entire charge of a game is the 
Umpire. He is entirely neutral, favoring neither side 
more than the other, and decides all questions . 
throughout a game — whether the pitched ball be a 
ball or a strike, whether the batter be out or not, 
whether a base runner made his base or not, etc. 

The part to be played by each member of a team, 
and the most important rules governing this, are given 
In detail below. The general spectator would find 
much added interest from knowing these rules, espe- 
cially the conditions under which base runners steal 
bases, are put out, etc.^ 

1 The rules embodied in the following text are those of the National 
Association of Professional Base Ball Leagues. These are for adults 
and for match games. The modifications officially allowed for junior 
players (those under sixteen years of age) are mentioned as they oc- 



The Field 



33 



FIELD. — A field for baseball should be level and 
measure not less than 325 feet square. On this the 
diagram for the game should be marked in white, 




Catcher ^^ ^ _^ , 
/ o*j hV- 4 Ft- H 

/^Catche?5 Place \ 

/ ^ Umpire 



DIAGRAM OF BASEBALL FIELD SHOWING POSITION OF PLAYERS 
AT THE START OF AN INNING 

as with lime or chalk, so as to be plainly seen from all 
parts of the ground. 

cur. The variations for informal games may be almost anything that 
conditions warrant — as to grounds and equipment, but the rules for 
playing should always be strictly observed. 

D 



34 Baseball 

INFIELD OR DIAMOND. — A rectangle 90 feet 
square is marked in the center of the inclosure, corner- 
wise to the outer boundaries, giving it the appearance 
of a diamond. This diamond is known as the infield, 
and all territory outside it as the outfield. 

BASES. — At each corner of this infield, or diamond, 
and within it, is placed a base. 

One base, called the '' home plate," where the batter 
stands, is nearest the grand stand and may not be 
closer than 90 feet to it. This is made of whitened 
rubber fastened to the ground and level with its sur- 
face; it is five sided, measuring 12 inches along the 
lines of the diamond from the angle, 17 inches across 
the front, and 8^ inches from the 12-inch lines to the 
ends of this forward line. This plate is the place over 
which the pitcher sends the ball, and it also serves as 
a fourth base, to touch which is the aim of a base 
runner as that act scores a run for his team. 

The other three bases are called first, second, and 
third base, respectively, startingtoward the right from 
the home plate as one stands at that point looking into 
the diamond. These each measure 15 X 15 inches, 
their outer edges following the lines of the diamond. In 
ofiicial games these three bases consist of white canvas 
bags filled with soft material, as sawdust, or sand, and 
fastened securely to the ground by means of spikes 
and straps. 

batter's box. — On each side of the home plate, 
and six inches from it, is drawn an oblong inclosure 
measuring 6X4 feet. Each of these is a '^ batter's 
box," in which the batter must stand while hitting 
the ball. A batter is at liberty to stand in either box, 



The Field 35 

and this is determined by his being right or left 
handed. 

A pitcher's plate, or box, is placed practically 
in the center of the diamond, being close to the 
batter's side of an imaginary Une from first to third 
base. This is of whitened rubber Hke the home 
plate, and measures 24 X 6 inches. It must be level 
with the surface, but may be on a gradually sloping 
mound, making it higher, by not more than 15 inches, 
than the home plate. The pitcher must always 
stand with at least one foot on the pitcher's rubber 
slab when delivering the ball. 

catcher's place. — A triangle which constitutes 
the catcher's place is drawn immediately back of the 
home plate, by extending the lines of the diamond 
and connecting them with a Hne 10 feet from the point 
of the plate. The catcher must be within this space 
when the ball is pitched, and no one else except the 
Umpire is allowed in this inclosure. 

BACKSTOP. — Usually a high board or wire fence is 
erected 80 feet back of the catcher's Hne (90 feet back 
of the home plate) to serve as a backstop for balls not 
caught by the catcher. 

FOUL LINES. — The hues of the diamond running 
forward on either side from the home plate are con- 
tinued beyond first and third bases respectively to 
the edge of the playing inclosure. These are called 
foul Hnes. A ball batted so that it falls within the 
diamond, or forward of it to the outfield within these 
lines, is called a fair hit, and entitles the batter to 
try for first base. Any batted ball falling outside 
the diamond behind these foul lines, unless first 



36 Baseball 

touched by a fielder, while within fair ground, is a 
foul hit. The batter may not rua on these, and 
the first two foul hits are counted against him as 
strikes. i 

THREE-FOOT LINE. — When the batter runs to 
first base he is out if he goes more than three feet 
outside the boundary of the infield. There is there- 
fore a line drawn parallel to the diamond from home 
to first base for the latter half of it, and three feet 
from it. This is called the '' three-foot line." 

COACHERS' LINES. — Base runners on first and 
third bases are allowed each to have the advice of 
one member of their team called a coacher. These 
coachers may not go nearer to the outline of the dia- 
mond than 15 feet, and only that distance toward the 
home plate from the bases, but may go as far as they 
wish parallel to the foul lines beyond the diamond. 
Lines indicating these Hmits are marked as '' coachers' 
lines '' on the diagram. A coacher is not allowed to 
touch a base runner. 

PLAYERS' BENCHES. — For the unoccupied mem- 
bers of each batting team a bench is placed back of 
the batter, one team being assigned to one side and 
the other to the opposite side. These players' benches 
must be at least 50 feet from the diamond. Each 
team keeps its bats, caps, etc., near the bench when not 
in use. No one but members of the teams, substi- 
tutes, and managers may go to these benches. 

TEAMS: INNINGS. — Each team consists of nine 
members, including the Captain ; the latter may fill 
any position on the team. A team may also have 
any number of substitutes, but no player having once 



Teams : Innings 37 

given his place to a substitute and left the game may 
return to the game. 

Always one team is at bat and the other in the field. 
The batting team is the only one that scores, the time 
at bat being called a half inning. A half inning lasts 
until three men have been put out, either as batters 
or base runners, when the teams change places and 
the opponents have a half inning ; these two halves 
making what is known as an inning. Each team is 
entitled to nine innings. {For junior players^ games 
are sometimes shortened to seven innings for each team.) 

The team that is having the half inning in which it 
goes to bat enters the game one player at a time, as 
batsman ; if successful, the batsman becomes a base 
runner. Each member of every team must therefore 
act as batsman and base runner, when his team is 
having the batting half of an inning. In addition to 
this, each member of each team has a definite position 
to fill when his team is in the field, or on the defensive. 
The duties of these defensive positions are highly 
speciaHzed and are elaborated hereinafter under their 
respective titles. They may be fisted here as follows : 
One pitcher ; one catcher ; three basemen, who act 
as keepers or guards each for one of the bases (these 
are called respectively first baseman, second baseman, 
and third baseman) ; one shortstop ; three fielders 
known respectively from their station in the outfield 
as right fielder, left fielder, and center fielder. 

The position taken by the dift'erent players at the 
opening of an inning is customarily as indicated on the 
diagram. All are at liberty to move freely, however, 
except the pitcher, when he is pitching, and the 



38 Baseball 

catcher, when a ball is pitched. These two players may 
move freely while doing infield work, but are confined 
strictly to their places while doing battery duty. 

When a team is having a batting half inning, all of 
its players and substitutes not actually in the game 
must sit on the players' bench, except two who may 
be on the coacher's lines coaching the base runners 
at first and third bases. 

BATSMAN. — Each player on'a baseball team must 
take his turn as batter when his team is at bat (scor- 
ing), no matter what his position on the team may be, 
when it is in the field {i.e., on the defensive) ; for only 
after batting may a player become a base runner, by 
which means alone the score is made. A batter may 
be ^' put out " (retired for that inning, unless his turn 
comes round again), before he tries to run for first 
base, or he may try and fail to get there ; all of these 
matters are determined by the kind of balls pitched 
to him, whether he strikes at them or not, the way he 
hits them, and whether or not they be caught, the 
rulings for which points are all very definite. 

BATTING ORDER. — Before a game begins, the 
names of the members of each team are written down 
by its Captain in the order in which they will go to the 
bat, and handed to the Umpire. This is called the 
batting order and may not be changed. The oppos- 
ing Captain is also privileged to see this batting order. 

The Score-keeper calls the players by name to the 
bat — one at a time — in the order given him. A 
player may be declared out by the Umpire for not 
being in position in the batter's box within one minute 
after he is called. 



Batsman 39 

After the first inning, the first player called to the 
bat will be the one next on the list to the one who was 
last on the batting order to be '' put out.'' A player 
is considered to have completed his time at bat when 
he is put out, or when he becomes a base runner in any 
way ; that is, by (i) being given a base on balls ('' four 
balls ") ; or (2) making a sacrifice hit ; or, (3) being 
hit by a pitched bajl; or, (4) being interfered with 
by the catcher. 

batter's place. — The batter's place is in one of 
the boxes beside the home plate. These so-called 
boxes are rectangles 4X6 feet marked on the ground. 
There is one on the left of the home plate for right- 
handed batters, and one on the right of it for left- 
handed batters. 

In batting, a batter must have both feet within the 
batter's box. It is a transgression of the rules, and 
puts the batter out, should he bat with even one foot 
out of his box. Most good batters take a step forward 
toward the ball as they bat, but this step must be 
entirely within the box. 

BATTER'S FORM OF PLAY. — The best form for 
batting is for the batter to face the pitcher as the ball 
is delivered, with his weight on the foot on the side 
from which he bats ; that is, on the right foot if he 
is a right-handed batter, or vice versa. This foot serves 
as a pivot on which to turn and the other foot should 
be forward. He should stand close to the plate so 
that his bat will swing well over it. 

The bat should be as heavy as the player can swing 
comfortably without being hampered by its weight. 
The legal Kmits for length and weight are given under 



40 Baseball 



" Outfit." The bat should be held from four to eight 
inches from the knob by both hands, the right being 
uppermost for a right-handed batter and vice versa. 

The catcher stands close behind the home plate to 
catch balls that are not batted. The catcher and the 
pitcher are opponents of the batter; and while the 
pitcher tries to put most of the balls '' over the plate/' 
and while it is illegal for the catcher to interfere with 
the batting, they will both try to deceive the batter 
as to the kinds of balls to be pitched, so he may not 
be able to hit the ball. 

BATSMAN'S DUTIES IN GENERAL. — It is the 
batter's duty to bat the ball, if it be a good one, and 
then throw down his bat and run for first base with 
all possible speed. Should he bat the ball so far 
that he can get to first base before an opponent can 
tag him out with the ball, or reach the base with it 
before him, or before the first baseman, while on the 
base, has secured the ball, he is said to have made a 
base hit ; should he bat so far that he can run to first 
base and from there to second, he has made a two-base 
hit or a ^^ two-bagger " ; three bases, he has made a 
three-base hit — or '' three-bagger " ; and should 
he make a hit that enables him to make all four bases 
(the home plate is fourth base), he has made a '^ home 



run." 



Balls must be thrown so as to reach the catcher, 
while the catcher is within his limits, to be a legally 
thrown ball for a batter to hit. He may make three 
tries to hit^the ball, and must run for first base on the 
third try, if the catcher has not caught the ball, 
whether he has batted the ball to a safe distance or 



Strikes and Balls 41 

not. On the other hand, he may advance to the first 
base without interference as a penalty to the pitcher 
should the latter throw him four balls in succession. 
Good balls are called " strikes " and poor balls are 
called '^ balls." The rules governing these and 
others affecting the batter are given in detail below. 

STRIKES AND BALLS. — A ball pitched SO that it 
passes over the home plate at a height between knee 
and shoulder is a good ball and the only kind at which 
a batter should hit. Such a ball is called a " strike/' 
and a batter is entitled to three such strikes, or chances 
to hit a good ball, so that he may run to first base. 
Whether he hits such a ball or not, the ball pitched as 
a strike is called a strike and counts as one of the 
three to which the batter is entitled. 

A ball that does not pass over the home plate, or 
that passes over it at a height above the batter's 
shoulder or below his knee, is a low ball and is called a 
" ball." A batter should not strike at such a ball, but, 
should he hit it, and it land within the diamond or 
the outfield, he is entitled to attempt to reach first 
base before the ball reaches the first baseman. 

The Umpire determines whether a ball be a ball or 
a strike, and calls it each time as it is caught. 

A batter may miss the ball either by hitting at it 
and failing to touch it ; or by refusing for some reason 
to hit at it, as, for instance, mistaking a strike for a 
ball ; or, he may refuse because it is pitched in such a 
way that he does not think he can hit it to advantage, 
even though it be a strike. 

BATTING. — The batter may bat the ball so that it 
is a fair hit or a foul hit. A fair hit is one that falls 



42 Baseball 

within the diamond or infield, or outside of it if for- 
ward between the foul lines. A foul hit is one that 
goes back of the diamond and the foul lines. A ball 
that hits the ground inside of fair ground, within the 
diamond, and rolls to foul ground is called a foul hit. 
One that hits out and rolls back into fair ground is 
called a foul hit. A ball that strikes within the out- 
field and rolls out of bounds is a fair hit. The only 
kind of hit that entitles a batter to run for first base is 
a fair hit that is not caught by an opponent. On a 
foul hit neither he nor any of the other base runners 
may advance. A batter does not wait, however, to 
know if his hit be fair or foul, or if it be caught, before 
starting his run to first base. He runs for first base 
as soon as he has batted, and returns to the batter's 
box if the ball be foul and not caught, unless this 
should be his third strike, and then such a failure puts 
him out. 

Any fly ball (that is, one batted so that it goes 
through the air instead of roUing on the ground), that 
is caught by an opponent, whether it be a fair hit or 
a foul hit, puts the batter out. Any foul hit that is 
not caught by an opponent, whether a fly ball or 
grounder, counts against the batter as a strike until 
he has two strikes against him; after that, fouls do 
not count against him except those that are caught ; 
so, except they be caught, he may then make any 
number of foul hits without suffering a penalty. 

A ball may be batted far or near. As a general rule 
the long distances are of the greatest advantage to 
the batter and his team mates who may be already 
on bases, as they can run farther before the ball is 



Rules for Batsman 43 

sent back to tag them out. Should a batter send a 
ball outside the legal limits of the grounds, or 235 
feet, he is entitled to a home run. 

Stopping the ball simply by holding the bat up for 
it without any swing is called a bunt. This results 
in the ball's falHng in the near part of the diamond, 
when it has to be fielded by som^e member of the 
infield. The batter is most likely to be put out, 
before he can reach first base, by a ball so near, but as 
this will give other base runners a chance to score or at 
least to advance, it is often done and is called a 
sacrifice hit, as the batter sacrifices himself to help 
the others to score.. He will not do this, of course, if 
there be two out on his side, as it would end the inning 
for his team, if he, the third man, be put out. Any 
kind of hit that sacrifices the batter for the purpose 
of allowing others to score is called a sacrifice hit. 

The rules for the batsman's base running are men- 
tioned below and elaborated under '^ Base runner." 

SUMMARY OF RULES FOR BATSMAN. — The only 
kind of hit on which a batter may legally make first 
base is a fair hit that is not caught by an opponent. 

The batter is allowed three strikes and may try 
to make his base with the right kind of hit at any one 
of the three strikes. 

THE BATTER IS OUT 

(a) if he does not make his base on the third strike ; 

(b) if any ball that he bats, be it sent to fair or foul 
ground, is caught on the fly and held, even momen- 
tarily, by an opponent ; 

(c) if he steps out of the batter's box while batting ; 



44 Baseball 

{d) if he is tagged with the ball in the hands of an 
opponent before he reaches first base ; 

{e) if an opponent, holding the ball, is on first base 
ahead of him ; 

(/) if, in running to first base, he goes more than 
three feet outside the line of the diamond ; 

{g) if he interferes in any way with the catcher's 
work in catching or throwing the ball ; 

{h) if he is hit on his third strike by a pitched ball. 

THE BATTER IS GIVEN FIRST BASE WITHOUT IN- 
TERFERENCE 

{a) if the pitcher deKvers four '' balls '' in succes- 
sion; i.e., four balls, that do not go over the plate, 
or that go over it above the height of the batter's 
shoulder or below the height of his knee ; 

{b) if he is hit at any time except on his third strike 
by any pitched ball which he tries to avoid ; 

{c) if he bats a ball tha-t hits a base runner ; 

{d) if the Umpire calls a balk on the pitcher. (See 

^^pitcher.'O 

THE BATTER IS GIVEN A HOME RUN without inter- 
ference should he bat the ball beyond 235 feet, or, 
if he bats a ball that strikes the Umpire on fair ground. 

BASE RUNNER. — Base running is the part of 
baseball around which all the rest of the game centers, 
for it is only by running a complete circuit of the 
bases, starting as batter and touching first, second, 
third, and fourth bases in regular order, that a player 
scores one point for his team. This may be done in 
one dash, called a '' home run," or by stopping on the 
different bases as safety points en route. The score 
is the same in either case. 




< 

O 
H 



o ^ 



o 
2; 



46 Baseball 

The entire object of the defensive team is to pre- 
vent these runs, by putting out (retiring) the players 
before they can get to the last base or home plate. 
Players may be put out by (i) pitching the balls so 
that the batter misses three strikes, in which case he 
is put out before he becomes a base runner ; or, (2) by 
tagging a runner between bases ; (3) in certain cases, 
by an opponent's getting to a vacant base with the 
ball, or catching it there, before the base runner 
arrives ; or, (4) catching a batted ball before it touches 
the ground. When three players have been put out, 
that half inning is ended for the team that is batting 
(scoring). They then go to the field (take the defen- 
sive) and the opponents have a half inning, i.e., a 
turn " at bat." Each team is entitled to nine such 
half innings. 

Each player on a team has to be a base runner, 
taking his turn as batsman when his team is ^^ at bat,'' 
and from that, if successful, becoming a base runner. 

A player may run to a base, or he may run part 
of the way and slide the rest of it full length on the 
ground, either feet first or head first. Sliding to a 
base is dangerous, as it may lead to injury, but it 
often gives an advantage by saving time and by the 
long reach, especially sliding head first with both arms 
extended. Sliding also makes it more difficult for 
an opponent to touch a player with the ball. 

RUNNER FOR FIRST BASE. — A batsman may be 
put out (i) by poor batting before he becomes a base 
runner, or (2) he may be put out like any other runner 
between bases, or, (3) by an opponent reaching first 
base with the ball ahead of him. 



Baserunner 47 

The only kind of hit on which a batsman is entitled 
to run to first base is a fair hit ; that is, any kind of hit, 
^^ fly/' ''grounder/' or ''bounder/' that falls within 
the diamond, or forward of it between the foul lines 
— with the one exception that any fly hit, foul or 
fair, caught by the opponents, puts him out. A 
batsman becomes a base runner for first base as soon 
as he has hit the ball. He should throw down his bat 
and run immediately on making a hit without waiting 
to see the result, unless sure of having hit to foul 
ground. 

In running to first base a player must not go more 
than three feet outside of a direct line from first to 
home base (plate) (the outline of the diamond), or he 
is out. A three-foot line is drawn on the ground as a 
guide for this, though the rule is usually interpreted 
rather leniently. Overrunning or oversliding first 
base is permissible, if the runner does not attempt to 
run towards second base after he passes the first base. 
Should he be going on to second base at once, it is not 
necessary for him to return to touch first base if he 
has overrun it. 

A batter is at liberty to make as many bases as 
possible on one hit. As the defense concentrates its 
efforts very largely, however, on keeping a batter from 
making first base, it is very difficult to go beyond first 
on one hit. 

The runner to first base may be put out by (i) a 
fly catch by the opponents, whether the ball be batted 
to fair or foul ground ; (2) being tagged with the ball 
in the hands of an opponent before he reaches first 
base; (3) by an opponent's being on the base with 



48 Baseball 

the ball before he gets there ; (4) or he puts himself 
out, if he stops running, while en route. 

The runner for first base is also put out by his own 
fowls, as by interfering with the catching or fielding 
of the ball (see also the rules that retire a batsman), 
or by running outside the three-foot line. 

A batter is allowed to go to first base without inter- 
ference as a penalty for poor play of the opponents as 
follows : {a) when the pitcher sends him four balls 
(poor balls as distinguished from strikes) in succes- 
sion ; this is called giving him '' a base on balls " ; 
{b) whenever the Umpire calls a '' Balk " on the 
pitcher; that is, whenever the pitcher makes a foul 
as described under '' Pitcher '' ; {c) whenever the batter 
is hit by a ball he tries to avoid, except on his third 
strike; {d) whenever a batted ball hits the Umpire 
within fair ground. 

RUNNERS FOR SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH 
BASES. — After a player gets to first base, if he cannot 
safely go on to second base on the same hit, he has to 
wait at first, touching it with his foot or keeping near 
enough to touch it before an opponent could touch 
him with the ball, while off the base, until an oppor- 
tunity comes for advancing. This applies also to the 
second and third bases. After a fly ball has been 
caught, he needs must get back to the base he left, 
before an opponent can touch him with the ball or 
reach the base with the ball before the runner can 
get back to it. 

A base runner may run for the next base on a hit or 
between hits. A hit lasts from the time a pitcher 
holds the ball ready to throw to the bat, until the 



Baserunner 49 

batted ball is caught, if a fly hit, or until it is seen 
to be other than a fly hit. Should a base runner start 
while the pitcher is dehvering the ball, or while the 
ball is in the air, or at any other time before a hit is 
completed, he may keep the base to which he has 
advanced should the ball prove to be a fair hit that 
is not caught — that is, any kind of hit to fair ground. 
For a fair fly that is caught, however, or for any foul 
hit, he must return to his base, and may, or may not, 
be put out before he gets there, according to the kind 
of hit made by the batter. These are as follows : 

THE BASE RUNNER MAY RETURN TO HIS BASE 
WITHOUT BEING PUT OUT on (a) any foul hit except 
a foul fly that is caught ; (b) any pitched ball that is 
struck at and missed by the batsman and then hits 
the batsman ; (c) any batted ball that hits the Um- 
pire not having touched an opponent first; (d) any 
accidental interference by the Umpire with the 
catcher's throw\ 

THE BASE RUNNER MUST RETURN TO HIS BASE, 
AND MAY BE PUT OUT in either of two ways: (a) by 
tagging, or (b) by an opponent with the ball on the 
base after any fly ball is caught (foul or fair) . 

A runner may run for a base at any time through the 
game when he thinks the ball sufficiently far away or 
otherwise engaged to make it safe. Such advancing, 
by other means than running on hits, is called stealing 
a base. The danger of stealing lies in having to 
return to the base just left, in which case an unex- 
pected throw of the ball to the baseman there may 
result in putting the runner out. 

Overrunning, or over sliding a base also makes the 



50 Baseball 

runner liable to be put out, except on first base as 
previously explained. 

No base runner while running between bases, 
except in making a home run, two bagger, or three 
bagger, may go more than three feet beyond the line 
connecting the bases. Infringement of this rule puts 
the runner out. The fielder has the right of way. 

No runner may be put out while on a base to which 
he is legally entitled ; he can only be put out while off 
base or between bases. 

Only one runner may be on a base at a time, but 
the last player to arrive at a base is not entitled to it, 
and any player there before him is not forced to go 
on to the next base when the second one arrives, 
except whenever a ground hit is made ; then the man 
on base ahead is forced torun. This is called a forced 
play and the player so forced off his base may be put 
out either by being tagged with the ball between bases, 
or by a ball fielded to an opponent on the next base 
before the runner can reach there. To illustrate, if 
the batter makes first base, on a ground hit, and there 
is a player of his team already there, the latter is 
forced to run for second; should there be a player 
at second, he must run for third, and so on. Should 
a batter make a home run on a ground hit with 
players on first, second, and third bases, these three 
players, by being forced off bases ahead of them, will 
all complete their runs, and four points would be 
scored, one for each of the four runners. 

Besides earning or stealing their bases in any of the 
ways just described, players may advance one base 
without interference, the same as the batsman, on a 



Coacher: Pitcher 51 

penalty to the opponents for poor play or fouls (balks 
or errors). (See ^' Runner for First Base/') 

COACHING. — Base runners on first and third bases 
may be assisted in their judgment as to whether or 
not to run by coaches — members of their team who 
are allowed for that purpose to come within fifteen 
feet of those bases. 

SIGNALS. — In expert games, base runners work 
closely with the batter through signals, indicating to 
him or he to them, when a ball may be batted to 
advantage, etc. 

COACHERS. — Two members of a team having 
an inning may act as coachers for its runners on 
first and third bases. A line is drawn 15 feet from 
the diamond and parallel to it, by each of these bases, 
called the fifteen-foot Hne, . or coacher's line, within 
which coachers may not go. The captain of a team 
may himself act as coacher, and in any event desig- 
nates the others who are to serve in this capacity. 

A coacher's duty is to tell the base runner when it 
is safe to run or steal, when to return to base, etc. It 
is illegal for a coacher to address any other players in 
the field, or any one outside it, or to try in any way to 
work up sentiment among the spectators. 

PITCHER. — IN GENERAL. — On the pitcher's 
skill in delivering the ball depends largely the ability 
of the opposing batter to make, or fail to make, 
successful strikes. He also has important work 
instead of deHvering the ball to the bat, to throw it to 
basemen that they may put out base runners. The 
pitcher may also have to field (catch) batted balls 
that fall near him, and may even on occasion have to 



52 Baseball 

act as baseman to first base if the regular player there 
be fielding a ball. His most important work, however, 
is to pitch the ball to the batter. 

A pitcher may deliver to the bat two kinds of balls, 
those that are good, called ^' strikes, '^ and those that 
are poor, called " balls." A good ball (strike) is 
one that passes over the home plate, and does so at 
a height between the batsman's knee and shoulder ; 
a poor ball (ball) is one that does not pass over the 
plate or does so above or below the height specified. 
The Umpire calls out after each ball passes the plate 
whether it is a ball or a strike. There is no appeal 
from his decision. 

A pitcher is constrained to pitch a majority of good 
balls, for should he pitch four balls, as distinguished 
from strikes, the batter may advance to the first 
base without interference — called giving him a base 
on balls. The batter, however, is also punished for 
poor play by being obliged to run for first base on his 
third ^^ strike" (if the catcher has dropped the ball) 
whether he has hit it well, or poorly, or not at all. 
The pitcher tries, therefore, to send balls that will 
deceive the batter and make him miss. Pitching has 
been developed to so high a degree of skill that by dif- 
ferent ways of holding a ball, or of letting it leave the 
hand, it is possible to send it in a straight line until 
it reaches the plate when it suddenly curves outward 
to right or left, or drops downward in a curve, or at 
a sudden angle {'' drop ball ") ; or it may unex- 
pectedly '' jump " (upward) or change in speed. A 
good pitcher studies the style of batting of a batsman 
— whether he swings his bat high or low, etc. — and 



Pitcher 53 

throws accordingly. As the catcher, standing just 
behind the batter, often discerns these pecuharities 
better, it is usual for a catcher to signal to a pitcher 
what kind of ball to throw. The pitcher is not 
obliged to act on these signals, and often himself signals 
to the catcher what kind of ball he intends throwing, 
that the latter may be better prepared to catch it. 

The signals between pitcher and catcher are silent 
and may consist, for example, of the position in which 
they stand, or of some movement of the fingers of the 
ungloved hand, or, in the case of the catcher, the 
way in which he returns the ball to the pitcher, etc. 

Besides pitching to the batter, the pitcher has impor- 
tant work in helping basemen to put out base runners. 
It is optional with him whether he pitch to the batter 
or throw to one of his own basemen for this purpose. 
The catcher, who can better see the position of players, 
usually signals to the pitcher in which way to play, 
and, if the ball is to go to a baseman, to which one to 
throw it. 

RULES FOR THE PITCHER. — In throwing, the 
pitcher must face the batter and have at least one foot 
on the pitcher's plate and he may take but one step. 
Neither foot may be behind the plate. Should he 
throw toward one of the bases, a pitcher must take 
a step in the direction of that base. 

It is not allowable to make a feint at throwing the 
ball and not deliver it. This is called a balk, and all 
base runners may advance one base on it. 

A pitcher may not purposely delay the game by 
holding the ball ; he must play promptly when it 
comes to his hands. 



54 Baseball 

A foul play by the pitcher; that is, infringement 
of any rule for his position, is called a balk. The 
Umpire calls a balk whenever one is made and each 
base runner may advance one base without liability 
of being put out. 

Following is a list of ways in which a pitcher may 
" balk '' : 

(i) Any feint of throwing to first or to the batter 
while on the slab without doing so; (2) throwing to 
a base to intercept a base runner, without taking a 
step in that direction ; (3) delivering the ball to the 
bat without having one foot at least on the pitcher's 
plate ; (4) pitching the ball to the bat without facing 
the batsman; (5) delaying the game by holding the 
ball too long ; (6) delivering the ball to the bat while 
the catcher is outside of his place; (7) moving as 
though to pitch while on the slab without the ball in 
his possession. 

CATCHER. — PLACE AND DUTIES. — The 
catcher's place is back of the batter, facing the pitcher. 
He must be within ten feet of the batter when the ball 
is pitched, and usually stands close to the home plate. 

The catcher's duties are varied and important; 
indeed, in the highly developed modern game, he is 
the most important member of a team, for he not 
only plays his own part with the ball, but being the 
only player who can see all parts of the field, practi- 
cally directs the entire game by signaling to his team 
mates on bases what they should do. 

CATCHING BALLS. — The catcher and pitcher to- 
gether are often called '' the battery," and of course 
they belong to the team in the field and work in oppo- 



Catcher 55 

sition to the scoring team, whose players are batters 
and base runners. 

The first duty of a catcher is to catch the balls 
delivered to the batter by the pitcher, when the former 
misses them or allows them to pass him. It is espe- 
cially important that he catch a third strike (i.e., a 
good ball that passes over the home plate at the pre- 
scribed height between the batsman's knee and 
shoulder), that is, missed or passed by the batter, 
because a batsman is out, if a third strike be caught 
by the catcher. He is also out if the catcher catches 
a foul strike — i.e., one that falls outside of the dia- 
mond back of first or third base. 

If a catcher lets a ball pass him, it gives the base 
runners a chance to move forward in the time he is 
recovering it, though if there be no backstop at the 
prescribed distance of ninety feet behind the home 
plate, they may move up only one base. It is there- 
fore to the advantage of his team that he should get 
the ball back into play as quickly as possibly. 

CATCHER AS FIELDER. — Besides catching these 
balls, a catcher may go into the diamond to catch a 
fair hit (a ball that goes within the diamond or for- 
ward of the foul lines). He is not hkely to do this 
unless the ball falls in the near part of the field be- 
tween himself and the pitcher; then either of them 
may get it, the captain usually signaling by shouting 
which shall do so when it would be equally convenient 
for either. 

CATCHER'S RETURN OF THE BALL. — When a 
catcher secures the ball in any of these ways, he may 
send it back to the pitcher or throw it to any of the 



$6 Baseball 

members of his team, usually a baseman, who is in a 
position to put out a base runner. His judgment on 
which play to make is one of his strongest qualifica- 
tions. He is in a position to see which base runners 
are stealing bases, and either by throwing the ball 
himself, or signaling the pitcher, shortstop, or a 
fielder, may intercept such a run. 

CATCHER BECOMES BASEMAN FOR HOME BASE. — 
Besides catching the ball and directing the game by 
signaling to his team, the catcher acts as baseman or 
keeper (guard) at the home base, trying to put out 
runners from third base either by himself getting to 
the home plate with the ball in his hand before the 
runner, or by tagging the latter with the ball held in 
his (the catcher's) hand. When there is a man on 
third base, a batted ball is usually sent back to the 
catcher or third baseman for this purpose by the fielder 
who secures it. 

It is therefore necessary for the catcher to be a 
skillful catcher, a good, speedy thrower, a quick base- 
man, and at the same time watch the moves of all 
other players and signal directions to his team. 

catcher's signals. — One of the most important 
duties of a catcher is to signal to the pitcher what kind 
of ball to pitch — a curved ball, a drop ball, or what 
not. For the catcher is in the best position to study 
the batter's peculiarities, whether, for example, he 
hits high or low, steps forward to meet the ball, or 
shrinks back from it, etc., so he can often judge best 
what kind of ball he will be likely to miss. The 
pitcher is not obhged to act on these signals, but it 
is usually wise to do so. Should he use his own 



Basemen 57 

judgment, he usually signals to the catcher what sort 
of a ball he will throw, to assist the latter in his 
catching. 

The catcher also signals, to baseman, shortstop, or 
fielders, as explained under '' Returning the Ball/' 

A catcher's signals should be known only to his 
team, and are often changed to avoid discovery by 
opponents. Silent signals are best, and are usually 
made by the fingers, the position of the cap on the 
head, etc. 

BASEMEN. — IN GENERAL. — There are three 
basemen on a team, who act as keepers, or guards, 
for the three bases, and try to prevent the batting 
team from scoring runs by putting out the base runners. 
This they do by tagging them between bases with the 
ball (held, not thrown), or by themselves being on a 
base with the ball, before the base runner gets there. 
Which of these methods they shall use in putting 
out a runner is determined sometimes by rule and 
sometimes by judgment. 

No baseman may block or interfere physically with 
the base runner, as by catching, tackling, or tripping ; 
his only defense is in outrunning him and having the 
ball. 

A baseman must also field (catch) any batted balls 
that come within his range and throw with quick 
judgment to any player of his team who is in a better 
position than himself to, put out a runner. In an 
expert game, where he shall throw is often determined 
by signals. It is therefore obvious that a baseman 
must be a quick and accurate thrower, a sure catcher, 
a quick thinker, and a rapid runner. A delay of a 



58 Baseball 

fraction of a second in any department of his work 
may enable an opponent to make a base, for it must be 
remembered that base runners go at sprinting speed, 
and may make from five to ten feet in half a second. 
Even straightening up to throw after catching a low 
ball may make the fatal difference, and basemen must 
therefore be able to throw swift underhand as well 
as overhand balls, from practically any position, from 
that of stooping to stop a grounder, to reaching for a 
high fly. Of course each baseman, besides this de- 
fensive play, must be an expert batter and base runner 
when his team is at bat. 

The first baseman guards first base; the second 
baseman, second base ; and the third baseman, third 
base. All three start an inning near their bases, but 
there is no rule about this, and they may move freely 
throughout the game. Their nearness to base will be 
largely determined by whether or not there is a runner 
there, or one trying to get there. 

Obviously a baseman must know well the rules and 
tactics by which base runners may advance. The 
runner's main opportunity is when a batted ball is 
not caught by the opponents, or, being caught, is 
muffed (dropped ; a poor or insecure catch) . A base 
runner often does not wait to see the result of the 
batting, but starts for the next base while the ball is 
in the air or even before the pitcher throws. If the 
ball be caught, he must then go back to his base, and 
that is an opportunity for the baseman, who usually 
tries to head the runner off by getting to the base 
before him, signaling the man who fields the ball to 
throw it to the base for him to catch there. 



Basemen 59 

The base runner is similarly obliged to return to a 
base on a batted ball that proves to be a foul hit. 
Under any other circumstances — as a fair hit not 
caught, or caught and muffed, or when the ball is being 
used to put out other base runners, or in any way that 
he can get a chance — a runner may advance to the next 
base if he can get there. He is especially liable to try 
this if the ball be not in his vicinity, and it is then that 
good team work in the defensive team may get the 
ball to the baseman in time to tag out the runner 
between bases. 

THE FIRST BASEMAN has the ball thrown to him 
oftener than any other, and it may come from any 
player on the infield, or, less frequently, from the out- 
field ; for, all of the team combine to help him put out 
the batter before he can make his first base. The 
first baseman usually plays with one foot on or near 
his base, to lose no time in running, and must be 
expert in catching all kinds of balls from that position. 
It is important that all throws to him be accurate, 
not only to keep him near his base and avoid missing or 
muffing, but to prevent his having to field a ball that 
goes beyond him; for as there is no fielder back of 
him he must secure such a ball, and that not only 
lets in the batter, but gives the other base runners a 
good chance to advance while the ball is inactive. 
Bunted or foul balls, or balls from left-handed batters, 
are apt to come in his direction also, and for these he 
acts as fielder, if they are out of range of the pitcher, 
catcher, or second baseman. Should they take him 
far from base, any of these players may cover his base 
for him. 



6o* Baseball 

THE SECOND BASEMAN, in protecting his base, 
plays most with the shortstop and right fielder, but 
has some very important plays in helping first base. 
Like most of the other infield players, he throws 
oftenest to first base when he has the ball. 

THE THIRD BASEMAN'S position is one of the most 
important, as it is his duty to head off the final stage 
of a run (from third to home), as well as to prevent a 
runner from getting to third. He has to field many 
batted balls, especially from right-handed batters, and 
bunted balls. He has little fielding to do for a left- 
handed batter. He plays closely with the short- 
stop, pitcher, and catcher, and throws often to first. 

THE SHORTSTOP stands between second and 
third bases, usually just outside the diamond, but, 
like the basemen and fielders, he may move freely. 
His main duty is to catch batted balls, many of which 
go to his vicinity ; of course, this carries with it the 
ensuing duty of throwing the ball to the pitcher, if 
there be no men on bases, or, according to his judg- 
ment, to any of the basemen, or to pitcher or catcher 
should there be men on bases. He must be quick to 
catch signals for the balls and must cooperate closely 
with the basemen. Errors on the part of the short- 
stop are especially liable to allow the batting team to 
advance, or even to score. He plays especially 
closely with the pitcher and second basemen to put 
out runners to second. He may even at times have 
to cover first or third base when the baseman is field- 
ing. All fielders usually study the batting of opposing 
likely teams and move in the direction in which they 
judge that the ball is to be hit. 



Shortstop : Fielders 6i 

FIELDERS. — There are three fielders, a right 
fielder, a left fielder and a center fielder, whose places 
are in the outfield, i.e., beyond the diamond. Their 
duties are to field (catch and return) balls that go to 
that part of the ground. 

fielder's place ; GROUND COVERED. — The posi- 
tion of the fielders is within the foul lines, but they 
run anywhere that may be necessary to secure the ball, 
except into the infield, where batted balls are caught 
by basemen, shortstop, or pitcher, called the infielders. 
The right field stands back in the outfield to the right 
(viewing the field from the catcher's position) ; the 
left fielder has a similar place to the left, and the center 
fielder in the center well back of second base. 

How far out a fielder shall stand at the opening of a 
play will vary with conditions and must be a matter 
of judgment on his own part. If he knows how a 
batter is likely to bat, as, for instance, high flies, he 
can sometimes anticipate the ball by taking a position 
deep (far back) in the field ; or by coming in close for 
batters who habitually hit to shorter range. Batting, 
however, with expert players, is so skillful that hits 
are apt to be purposely varied to mislead the fielders. 

A left-handed batter sends many balls to the right 
side of the field, keeping the right fielder busy, while a 
right-handed batter hits to the left side, which means 
more work for the left fielder and shortstop. Both 
right- and left-handed batters are apt to hit forward 
toward second base, and for balls that go beyond that 
point the center fielder must be alert. 

To what part of the field a ball will go is also largely 
determined by the way it is pitched. It is therefore 



62 Baseball 

important for a fielder to understand the signals by 
which a pitcher or catcher indicate to their team the 
kind of a ball to be thrown. 

For a ball that goes between fielders, equally con- 
venient for either to get, both should run, but in such 
a case collisions should be avoided by the player who 
gets nearest to the ball calling, '' I have it! " ^^ My 
ball ! " or ^^ My catch ! " when the other runner should 
instantly stop. Sometimes the Captain calls which 
is to catch the ball, but for the outfielders he is usu- 
ally too far away to do this advantageously. 

It is also a fielder's duty to run in rather close be- 
hind a baseman or the shortstop when one of the latter 
intends catching the ball, so as to '' pick it up " 
should it get beyond them. In such a case, though 
the batter will probably make the first base, it is 
important to get the ball in play again as quickly as 
possible to prevent any other base running. The 
fielder should back up in a similar way any other 
fielder whom he can reach for a difficult catch. De- 
lays are exceedingly dangerous in giving base runners 
a chance to advance. 

It is apparent that a fielder must cover a wide 
territory and be able to start and run in any direction 
at sprinting speed. 

fielder's catching. — A fielder must be an 
expert in catching the ball. To fail to catch a ball is 
charged to the fielder in his record as an error, except 
in the case of a ^^ hot ball" (a very hard-hit ball), 
or of a very difficult twisting or bounding ball; or, 
if a ball be dropped in collision between the fielder and 
a base runner, it is not an error. It is an error if the 



Fielders 63 

fielder fail to hold an ordinarily hit ball (muffs it), 
or if he fumbles the ball ; that is, having stopped the 
ball (as, for example, a hard-hit grounder) he fumble 
it in trying to pick it up. 

The fielder's catch is of especial importance as 
the batter's run to first base does not count if the ball 
be caught on the fly (called a fly ball), and held, even 
momentarily, before touching the ground; or if a 
grounder (a ball that rolls on. the ground from the 
bat) be caught and held, or one that goes outside the 
foul Hues. 

FIELDER'S THROWING. — A fielder must have skill 
and strength for throwing from long distances. 
Should he throw so far beyond or to one side of a 
baseman that the latter cannot get the ball (called 
'' a wide throw ") it is charged to the fielder as an 
'^ error." A ball thrown by a fielder so that it falls 
short of a baseman, reaching him on the bound, is 
also an error on the part of the fielder. 

A fielder must have a close knowledge of the con- 
dition of the game and quick, accurate judgment as 
to where the ball should be sent to head off base runners. 
The fielder is too far away as a rule to tag out run- 
ners himself, but must throw to one of the basemen 
for this. Should a baseman be able, through such a 
throw, to put out a runner, the fielder is credited 
with an '' assist '' — that is, with having assisted in 
putting out the runner. 

The fielder is also credited with an assist in such 
a case if his own judgment and throw have been 
accurate, but the baseman fails to catch the ball or 
to put out the runner. Should the fielder show poor 



64 Baseball 

judgment in thus throwing the ball, and a base runner 
succeed in making a base through the opportunity 
thus given, the fielder is charged with an error. 

An outfielder seldom tries to throw to the catcher to 
put out a base runner from third to home, as the dis- 
tance is apt to be too far for success. Fielders send the 
ball most frequently to the second baseman, and some- 
times to first or third, or to the shortstop ; or, if there 
be no runners on bases, then to the pitcher. In a game 
between experts a fielder is often informed by signals to 
which of the foregoing players to send the ball. When 
the distances are very great a fielder may send the ball 
to its destination by relays ; that is, throw to another 
player of either the infield or outfield, to be thrown by 
him to the baseman for whom it is intended. 

A fielder may also have a chance to assist a base- 
man in making a '' run out " between bases — that 
is, to throw the ball back and forth from one to the 
other while walking toward each other with a runner 
who has been caught off base between them. One 
of them will probably have a chance to tag him with 
the ball before he can get past to a base. 

SCORE. — IN GENERAL. — One point is scored for 
each run (complete circuit of bases by one runner of 
the team at bat). This is the only way in which 
points are scored. Only the team at bat scores. 

That team wins in a game of baseball which has 
made the larger number of runs during the nine in- 
nings to which each team is entitled. 

The game is played in nine innings (i.e., nine for 
each team) for adults, and for juniors in seven innings 
if desired. 



Score 65 

The full game is terminated without waiting to 
complete the last inning in case the score be deter- 
mined before that time. This may happen (a) if the 
team that batted first score fewer runs in nine in- 
nings than its opponents in eight innings ; (b) if the 
last team to have its last inning make the number of 
points needed to win before its third man be put out. 

Should the score be equal at the end of nine in- 
nings for each, the game is a tie or drawn game, and 
is continued until one team has scored more runs 
than the opponents in an equal number of innings. 
This is called an extra-inning game. Such a game 
may terminate, however, as in the case of a regular 
game, when the side second at bat has made a win- 
ning score, irrespective of whether or not it has com- 
pleted the inning. 

The Umpire declares when a game is terminated by 
calling ^^ Game ! " He also has the privilege of calHng 
game before the innings be finished, if in his judgment 
darkness, rain, fire, or other emergency make it impos- 
sible to continue. In such a case, if each side has 
played five or more full innings, and the score is equal, 
the Umpire will declare it a drawn or tie game. It is 
also declared a drawn game without waiting for the 
last inning to be finished, should the team that was 
second at bat at the opening of the game have 
achieved, in an equal or less number of innings than 
its opponents, one run more than the latter. 

A complete and official score of baseball contains, 
however, much more than the runs scored. It is 
peculiar in giving for each player and for each team 
a record of all important points of play. This reveals 



66 Baseball 

skill and ability and whether or not the game was 
won mostly on the skill of the winning team, or the 
weakness of opponents. The official rules require 
that each player's record be kept, for his batting and 
fielding play, in prescribed columns, after his name, 
as follows : 

AS BATSMAN.— 

ist column, number of times at bat. 

2d column, number of runs made. 

3d column, number of first-base hits made. 

4th column, number of sacrifice hits made. 

IN THE FIELD.— 

5th column, number of opponents put out. 

6th column, number of assists (in putting out players). 

7th column, number of fielding errors (failures in fielding to 
throw the ball where it could have been used to put out a 
baseman). 

Decisions as to assists and errors, especially the 
latter, are matters of judgment and often very diffi- 
cult to determine. It is not unusual for official 
scorers to differ on these points. The rules define 
these as definitely as possible. In general an assist is 
credited to every player who handles the ball in aid- 
ing to put out a player ; for example, to a fielder, or 
any one else fielding the ball, who throws it to a base- 
man in time to put out a base runner. This is done 
whether or not the last player complete the play by 
making the put out. This applies to each player 
who handles the ball after it leaves the bat, or after 
it is thrown to any player, as distinguished from 
being pitched to the bat. It does not apply to the 
player who actually puts out a runner. 



Score 67 

A fielding error consists of such a misplay, either in 
handling the ball (muffing, etc.) or in poor judgment 
as to where to throw it, that it prolongs the time at 
bat of the batsman, or allows a base runner to make 
one or more runs. 

Battery errors (i.e., those of the pitcher and catcher) 
are distinct from fielding errors, and consist of any 
misplay of these two players which allows the bats- 
man to run, or gives him a base on balls. 

Stolen bases are credited to a base runner when he 
makes a base unaided by a base hit, or put out, or a 
fielding or battery error. 

SUMMARY OF SCORE. — In addition to the record 
of individual players on points mentioned above, 
official League rules require that a summary of the 
game be made which shall contain the following 
points: 

(i) The score made in each inning and a total score for the 
game. 

(2) For the team at bat (a) the number of bases stolen, and 

(b) the number of two- and three -base hits and home runs made 
by each player. 

(3) The number of double and triple plays (i.e., two or three 
men put out on one hit) made by each side and the names of 
players assisting in these. 

(4) For the pitcher , (a) the number of innings in which he 
has pitched, (b) the number of base hits made from his pitching, 

(c) the number of times a pitcher succeeds in putting out a 
batsman on strikes, (d) the number of times he gives a base on 
balls ; (e) the number of wild pitches, (/) the number of times 
he hits the batsman with the ball. 

(5) For the catcher , the number of balls passed (not caught) . 

(6) Also , (a) the time taken to play the game, and (b) the 
name of the Umpire. 



68 Baseball 

The standing of individual players and clubs is 
determined by figuring the percentage of successful 
plays in batting, fielding, and base running, as much 
as by the number of games won in a ^^ round robin " 
series, i.e., a series in which each team plays every 
other team in a group, the ultimate winner being the 
champion. 

The batting average is found by dividing the total 
number of base hits by the total number of times at 
bat. For instance, if a man had been at bat five times 
and had got three hits, his batting average would be 
.600 ; if a man had been at bat three times and had 
got one hit, his batting average would be .^^^. 

The field average of a player is determined by add- 
ing the times he has put out a player, and assisted 
in putting out a player, by the number of chances he 
has had to do this. The number of chances to do it is 
found by adding the number of his errors to the pre- 
vious total (put outs and assists). 

The base-running record is a record of the bases 
the player has made without help, or base stealing. 
It is found by dividing the number of bases stolen 
by the number of games in which the player has 
played. 

METHOD OF KEEPING SCORE. — There are many 
methods of keeping score. Below is a baseball short- 
hand that is used by baseball writers. All players 
are numbered and all plays recorded by symbols. 

Players should be numbered as follows : Pitcher, i ; 
Catcher, 2 ; First Baseman, 3 ; Second Baseman, 4 ; 
Third Baseman, 5 ; Shortstop, 6 ; Left Fielder, 7 ; 
Center Fielder, 8 ; and Right Fielder, 9. 



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70 Baseball 

The symbols for play are as follows : Base Hit, 
— ; Two-base Hit, =: ; Three-base Hit, ^ ; Home 
Run, ^ ; Fumbled Grounder, A ; Hit by Pitcher, 
HP ; Wild Pitch, WP ; Stolen Base, S ; Left on 
Bases, L; Sacrifice Hit, H; Passed Ball, B; Balls, 
Bk.; Struck Out, K; -Base on Balls, B.B.; Muffed 
Fly, O ; Wild Throw, W ; and Forced Out, XX. 

The method of recording a play is illustrated by 
this diagram : 






In the upper left-hand corner opposite batter's 
name A-4 means batter reached first on fumble by 
second baseman. In the upper right-hand corner S 
means he stole second. In the iower right-hand 
corner B means he reached third on a passed ball. 
In the lower left-hand corner 6-2 means he was thrown 
out to catcher at plate by shortstop. 

OFFICIALS. — In baseball there are but two 
officials, an Umpire and a Scorer. 

UMPIRE. — The Umpire is the supreme authority 
in a baseball game and is in complete control and 
direction of the game. It is permissible to have 
two Umpires, one to decide points pertaining to the 
battery and home base, the other for other bases and 
fielding. It is also permissible to have two Score 
Keepers, one for each team. 

When there is but one Umpire he may stand any- 
where on the ground, but usually takes a position 
immediately behind the catcher or pitcher. 

Before a game begins the Umpire should look over 
the ground to see that it is properly laid out, and in- 
spect balls, bats, and other material used in the game 



Officials 71 

to see that the specifications of the rules are complied 
with. The batting order for each team (list of the 
players in the order in which they will bat) is dehvered 
to the Umpire before a game opens, by the captain of 
each team. The Umpire usually shows this order to the 
opposing captain and must do so on request, though 
a duplicate list is often furnished for this purpose. 

The Umpire opens the game by calling '^ Play 
Ball! '' He may suspend play at any time when it 
becomes absolutely necessary, as for injury to a player, 
by calling ^^ Time ! '' but may do this only when the 
ball is in the hands of the pitcher ; play may not be 
resumed again until the Umpire calls " Play ! '' and 
in that interval no base may be run, no player put 
out, and no run scored. 

The Umpire makes and calls all decisions as to the 
ball or the players during the game. After every ball 
pitched by the pitcher, the Umpire calls '' Strike ! '^ 
or '' Ball ! '' according as he decides it to be, but the 
ball must have passed the plate before he calls. He 
will therefore need to be familiar with all of the 
rules that determine the difference between strikes 
and balls, as well as all other rules of the game. In a 
similar way he calls, '' Fair strike ! " " Foul strike ! " 
^^Dead ballP' ^^ Block Ball!'' He also decides 
whether a base runner is safe or out, or has made a 
run, and tells the Score Keeper of ^' errors '' and 
^^ assists '' to be recorded, or any other points for the 
score. There is no appeal from the decision of an 
Umpire on any matter of judgment, such as those 
mentioned above, and no player may protest or dis- 
pute his decisions on such points, nor may the Um- 



72 Baseball 

pire change such decisions. Only on a claim that an 
Umpire's decision is contrary to the rules (as distin- 
guished from matters of judgment listed above), 
may any protest be made, and then only by a captain 
to the Umpire. The Umpire may reverse a decision 
that he becomes convinced is in violation of rules. 

In professional games the Umpire may fine a player 
$5 for a first infringement of rules, and may order 
any player from the grounds for a second offense, 
including ungentlemanly conduct, or disputing the 
Umpire's decisions. 

SCORE KEEPER. — ^ There may be one Score Keeper 
for a game or one for each team. The rules for scor- 
ing in official games are very definitely given in the 
official rules. They include, for a full score, not only 
the runs and outs made by a side, but a classified 
record of its good and poor plays {'' errors ")• The 
Score Keeper has to decide many times as to whether 
a hit has been made or whether the batter reached 
first on an opponent's error, etc. 

The score is kept in a blank book regularly ruled. 
While there are different forms for this, they al) con- 
tain the prescribed number of columns. See^' Score.'' 

The Score Keeper calls each batter to the plate in 
turn, and must observe clearly that a batter must 
have completed his turn at bat as defined in the rules 
(See '' BATSMAN ") before the next in order may be 
called. 

MATCH GAMES. — For match or championship 
games, the home club (the club on whose grounds 
the game is played) furnishes the balls and is re- 
quired to have at least a dozen on the grounds. 



Match Games: Outfit 73 

The Captain of the home club is given the choice 
of innings — that is, whether his team will begin the 
game at the bat or in the field. 

Match games for adults consist of nine innings with 
the exception of interrupted games, or a condition of 
score that makes winning by one club impracticable, 
as explained under '' SCORE.'' For junior players 
seven innings is often called a full game, but this 
should be determined beforehand. 

OUTFIT. — BALL. — For adults, official League 
rules specify a ball weighing not less than 5 nor 
more than 5J ounces, and measuring not less than 
9 nor more than 9I inches in circumference. The 
make is specified as Spalding or Reach. Such balls 
cost $1.50 each. Cheaper balls may be had for 
practice. In a match game the home club furnishes 
the balls and must have extra ones on the field ; for 
championship games at least one dozen balls must be 
on the field. 

For junior players (boys under sixteen years of age) 
a smaller ball — Spalding's Boy's League Ball — is 
officially approved for match games. These cost 
$1 each. 

BAT. — The official League rules for adults specify 
a bat that is round, not over 2f inches in diameter at 
the thickest part, and not more than 42 inches in 
length. This bat must be of hard wood, but for a 
distance of 18 inches from the end may be wound 
with twine or covered with a granulated substance. 
Within these limits a player may choose his own bat. 
For junior players somewhat smaller sizes are used. 
Bats cost from 10 cents to $1 each. 



74 Baseball 

BASE PLATES AND BAGS. — Under official rules the 
pitcher's plate and the home plate must be of whitened 
rubber, fastened to the ground and even (flush) with 
its surface. The pitcher's plate measures 24 X 6 
inches; the home plate is five sided, as described 
under '' Field '' ; these plates may be had, with pins 
for fastening them to the ground, at from $5 to $10 
each. 

First, second, and third base are each marked with 
a canvas bag measuring on the upper surface 15X15 
inches, filled with soft material, as sawdust or sand, 
and fastened to the ground with spikes. A set of 
three filled bases costs from I3.50 to $6 ; unfilled, $1 
for a set of three. 

DRESS. — Each baseball team should have a dis- 
tinctive uniform. This is a necessity to avoid con- 
fusion among the players. Official League rules 
make this a requirement. Other than this the general 
dress is optional, but padded trousers are almost 
always worn as a protection from injury, especially 
in sliding bases, and a regulation shoe plate is allowed 
on the soles of the shoes to make firmer footing. A 
large, leather mitt or glove, heavily padded, is usually 
worn by the members of a team in the field. The 
catcher may, according to official rules, wear one of 
any size, shape, or weight he desires ; the other players 
are restricted to a glove or mitt weighing not over 
10 ounces and measuring not over 14 inches around 
the palm. The catcher's mitt is usually very large 
and costs from $1.25 to $8; mitts for basemen and 
fielders cost from $1 to $4 for adults and from 25 
cents to $1 each for juniors; infielders' gloves cost, 



History 75 

for adults from $1 to $3.50, and for juniors from 25 
cents to $2.50. 

The catcher and Umpire often wear a mask of steel 
wire, and a heavily padded or inflated body protec- 
tor, covering the front of the trunk from neck to 
thigh. These prevent injury from hard balls. The 
masks cost from 25 cents each in cheap quality in 
boys' sizes to $5 each for the best in adult sizes. 
The protectors range similarly from $2.50 to $10.' 

HISTORY. — While probably a development from 
the old EngUsh Game of '' Rounders,'' or the '' Old 
Cat " games of our own country, baseball is essen- 
tially an American and modern game. 

A commission appointed in 1907, at the suggestion 
of Mr. A. G. Spalding, to investigate the history of 
the game, attributes its inception to Mr. Abner 
Doubleday, of Cooperstown, New York, in 1839. 
Mr. Doubleday is credited with drawing the first 
diagram of the '^ diamond " and bases, evidently in 
an effort to avoid colHsions between players running 
for a batted ball. 

The neighborhood of New York City is credited 
with contributing most to the evolution of the modern 
rules, and to the earliest competitive play between 
clubs. In 1845 the Knickerbocker Base Ball Club 
was organized in New York. The first baseball 
Convention was held under its auspices in 1857, for 
the purpose of framing- uniform rules. 

The professionalizing of the game began in 1863, 
when the players shared in gate receipts in Brooklyn ; 
the first salaried teams played in 1869, when the Red 
Stockings of Cincinnati made a tour. 



76 Baseball 

In 1 87 1 the National Association of Professional 
Baseball Players was formed; in 1875 control of the 
professional players was assumed by the club owners, 
who formed The National League of Professional Ball 
Clubs. A rival association, The American League, 
was founded in 1890. 

The evolution of the game has been in the size and 
construction of the ball, which at first was slightly 
larger, heavier, and '^ livelier '' ; and more especially 
in the rules governing the players. The '^ inside " 
signal game as played to-day is of comparatively 
recent development. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Official Handbooks 

Official National Baseball Guide; Rules and Records, Spalding's 
Athletic Library. (American Sports Publishing Co., 
New York.) An annual. 

The Reach Official . . . American League Baseball Guide. (Phila- 
delphia, A. J. Reach Company.) An annual compendium 
of baseball records. 

Compilers^ Baseball Batting Average Calculator. By C. Kerr. 
(Indianapolis, Sentinel Printing Company, 191 2.) 

The Game 

How to Pitch Curves. By Mordecai Brown. (Chicago, 
W. D. Boyce Company, 19 13.) 

Baseball for Spectator and Player. By Walter Camp. (Cen- 
tury Company.) In Walter Camp's Book of College 
Sports. 

Baseball, Individual Play and Team Play in Detail. By W. J. 
Clarke and T. Frederick Dawson. (New York, Charles 
Scribner's Sons, 1915.) With illustrations and diagrams. 



Bibliography : Glossary 77 

How to Score. By Joseph Merriken Cummings. (New York, 
Spalding's Athletic Library.) A Practical textbook for 
scorers of baseball games, amateur and expert. 

Baseball in the Big Leagues. By John J. Evers and Hugji S. 
Fullerton. (Chicago, Reilly and Britton Company, 1910.) 
Originally published as Touching Second. 

Scientific Baseball. By John J. McGraw. (New York 
R. K. Fox, 1910.) 

How to Play Baseball. By John J. McGraw. (New York, 
and London, Harper and Brothers, 19 14.) A manual for 
boys. 

Balldom. By *George Leonard Moreland. (New York, M. B. 
Brown Printing and Binding Company, 19 14.) The Bri- 
tannica of Baseball, comprising growth of the game in 
detail. A complete history of the National and American 
Leagues. 

Baseball and Baseball Players. By Elwood Andrew Roff. 
(Chicago, E. A. Roff, 191 2.) A history of the national 
game of America, and important events connected there- 
with from its origin down to the present time. 

America's National Game. By Albert G. Spalding. (New 
York, American Sports Publishing Company, 191 1.) 
Historic facts concerning the beginning, evolution, devel- 
opment and popularity of baseball. One of the most 
authentic, valuable and interesting books on the subject. 

The National Game. By Alfred Henry Spink. (St. Louis, 
Mo., The National Game Publishing Company, 1910.) 
A history of baseball, with illustrations and biographical 
sketches of the great players. 

GLOSSARY 

Assist. A fielder is said to have made an assist whenever 
he throws a ball to a baseman or other player in time to 
put out a base runner. It does not apply to the player 
who puts out the runner ; only to those who assist him. 
If their play be adequate, they are credited with an assist, 
whether the last player succeed in putting the runner out 
or not. 



78 Baseball 

Balk. An infringement of rules by the pitcher. 

Ball. A ball so pitched that it does not pass over the home 
plate between the height of the batter's knee and shoulder. 
Jf it does pass within these limits it is called a ^^ strike.'' 
The Umpire declares for every ball pitched, whether it 
be a ^^ball" or a ^^ strike." 

Base. A place of safety. In baseball there are four such bases. 

Base Hit. A hit by the batter which sends the ball so far 
that he can run to first base before the ball can be sent 
back to put him out. A two-base hit is one that enables 
the batter to run two bases, and a three-base hit, three 
bases. A four-base hit is called a ^^home run." 

Base on Balls. The batter is allowed to take first base 
without interference if the pitcher sends him four poor 
balls, called ^^balls" as distinguished from ^^ strikes." 
This is called giving him a base on balls. 

Battery. In baseball, the pitcher and catcher. 

Batting order. The order in which the players of a team 
go to the bat. The batting order is arranged by the 
captain of a team and given to the Umpire before a game 
begins. The score keeper calls the players to the bat 
in the order of this list, from which there may be no 
departure. No player is called until his predecessor has 
completed his time at bat. This time is completed when 
a batsman is put out, or when he is advanced a base under 
any conditions except (i) being given a base on '^ balls," 
or (2) being hit by a pitched ball, or (3) being interfered 
with by the catcher. 

Block ball. A ball so batted or thrown that it is touched, 
stopped, or handled by a person not taking part in the 
game. The Umpire calls all blocked balls. On such an 
occurrence, base runners may advance without liability 
of being put out until the ball be returned to the pitcher. 
If the return of the ball be delayed, however, the Umpire 
suspends play by calHng ''Time," when each base runner 
must stop on the base he last touched. 

Box. The places where the pitcher and batter stand. They 
are level with the surface of the ground, and in official 



Glossary 79 

games consist, for the pitcher, of a plate of whitewashed 
rubber ; and for the batsman, of an enclosure merely 
outlined on the ground. See Ground in text on Base- 
baU. 

Bunt. A hit made by simply holding the bat for the ball to 
hit it without striking it. 

Called ball. A pitched ''ball" as distinguished from a 
''strike," which the Umpire has called. 

CoACHERS. In baseball, two players of the batting team who 
are allowed to come within 15 feet of the base runners on 
first and third bases for the purpose of coaching them, 
i.e., giving them advice as to when to run, when to return 
to bases, etc. 

Curved ball. The pitcher may so deliver the ball that 
just before reaching the batter it takes a sudden curve 
in toward him or away from him. These are called 
"incurved" balls or "outcurved" balls. 

Deep; Playing deep; Deep field. In baseball, terms 
applied to distance points in the outfield. 

Double play. The putting out of two opponents on one 
play of the ball; i.e., from the time the pitcher delivers 
it to the bat until he is again ready to pitch it. 

Drop ball. A baU so pitched that it suddenly drops just 
before reaching the batter and passes the home plate 
lower than its general line of flight seemed to indicate. 

Earned run. A run made (earned) on good batting (base 
hits) as distinguished from stolen bases. 

Errors. The misplays made by a baseball player. These 
are fielding errors and battery errors. Fielding errors 
may consist of poor handling of the ball, as "mufiing" 
it, or poor judgment or slow work in throwing it when 
needed to put out a base runner. Battery errors are 
"balks" by the pitcher, or misplays (mostly passed balls) 
by the catcher on which, according to the rules, the 
batter is given a base. 

Fadeaway. A method of pitching a "drop ball" invented 
by Mathewson, whereby the ball goes with speed almost 
to the plate, and then slows up and drops with a rapid 



8o Baseball 

curve, deceiving the batter as to the height at which it 
should be hit. 

Fair hit. A hit by a batter which sends the ball within the 
diamond or beyond it, between Hues which extend the 
outline of the infield, beyond first and third bases. On 
such a hit the batter is entitled to run to first base, but is 
'^out'' if the ball be caught by a fielder before it touches 
the ground. 

A ball is called a fair hit if it rolls back inside the dia- 
mond after striking outside the limits of a fair hit. 

Fly ball. One that goes through the air as distinguished 
from one that rolls on the ground or bounds (^^ grounder" 
or ^^ bounder"). 

Fly catch. The catching of a fly ball. 

Forced run. The forcing of a runner who is waiting on 
first, second, or third bases, to go forward to the next base 
by the coming to his base of another runner, it being 
against the rules for more than one runner to be on a 
base at once. 

Fouls. See Legal and Illegal. 

Foul hit. A ball hit by the batter so that it goes outside 
the foul lines ; that is, back of the diamond, or the exten- 
sion of its lines to first and third bases. A ball is foul 
which rolls to foul ground after striking in fair ground. 

Foul strike. A hit by the batter made with one or both feet 
outside the space called the batter's box. 

Foul tip. A misplay by the batsman in which the ball 
merely touches the tip of the bat without changing direc- 
tion. This counts as a foul strike. 

Fumbled ball. When a ball has been caught, but not held, 
by a fielder, and he bungles in picking it up, it is said to 
be a fumbled ball. This is charged as an error in a fielder's 
record. 

Grounder. A ball batted or thrown so that it just skims 
the surface of the ground. 

Home base. The base at which the batting is done, and 
which forms the fourth or last base in completing a run. 
Also called the home plate. 



Glossary 8i 

Home run. A complete circuit of four bases on one hit in 
baseball. See Run. 

Hot ball. A ball thrown or batted so swiftly that it is 
almost impossible in catching to hold it. 

Infield. The diamond on a baseball field. 

Inpielders. The players of the defensive team in baseball 
who are stationed in, on, or near the diamond, as dis- 
tinguished from the three fielders proper, called out- 
fielders. The infielders are the pitcher, catcher, three 
basemen and shortstop. 

Inning. In baseball the time at bat of a team. This lasts 
until three men have been put out. Each team is en- 
titled to nine innings. In junior games this number is 
sometimes lessened. A team scores only when it is hav- 
ing an inning. 

Legal; Illegal. In baseball, anything is '^legaP' that is 
permitted by the rules, and "illegal" that is forbidden 
by them. In other games, as football, illegal plays are 
often called "fouls." The term "foul" is used in base- 
ball to designate the way in, or place to which, the batter 
hits a ball. Some illegal plays in baseball are penalized 
by a money fine, and some by expulsion of a player ; but 
most of them by giving an advantage to the batting team, 
as by advancing the batsman or base runners if the fault 
be with the team in the field, or by putting out their 
players if committed by the team at bat. The game is 
remarkable for the way in which the penalizing of illegal 
play is woven into the game. 

Muffed ball. A baseball term used to express an imper- 
fect catch in which the ball slips throtigh the hands. 
This is charged against a fielder as an error in his record, 
unless the ball be a so-called "hard hit" or "hot" ball. 

Out. In baseball the players of the team "at bat" are put 
out by their opponents, the team in the field. To be 
put out is to be retired for the rest of the half inning. 
Such a player returns to the game in the next half inning, 
when the teams change places and his goes into the field. 
An inning ends when three players have been put out 



82 Baseball 

on each side, and the teams then change places. Nine 
complete innings constitute a game. 

A batsman is put out in various ways and a base runner 
by being tagged with the ball in the hand of an opponent or 
under certain conditions by an opponent reaching a base 
with the ball, in advance of the base runner. 

Outfield ; Outfielders. That part of the field outside the 
diamond, or infield. The outfielders are the right, left, 
and center fielders. 

Overhand throw. A method of throwing a ball by swinging 
the arm forward above shoulder level. 

Passed ball. A ball which the catcher does not catch and 
which, passing him, touches the umpire, or any fence or 
building within 90 feet of the home base. This is called 
a battery error, charged against the catcher in his record 
and on it the batter and other players on bases may ad- 
vance one base. 

Plate. A small surface of rubber, metal or stone which marks 
the fourth or home base, called also the home plate. 
There is also a similar plate marking the pitcher's box, 
called the pitcher's plate. 

Run. a complete circuit of bases in baseball; that is, a 
batter's run from the home plate, or batting base, to first 
base, second base, third base, and again to the home plate 
in the order given. The game of baseball is scored on 
the number of "runs" made by a team in nine innings. 
An entire circuit of the bases on one hit is called a "home 
run." It is considered an extraordinary play, but does 
not score any more (one point) than a circuit made by 
stopping at bases on the way. 

Runout. When a base runner is trapped between bases by 
two opponents with the ball who walk toward each other 
until one of them can put him out, he is said to be "run 
out." Occasionally a player so trapped manages to slip 
past one of the opponents and make his base. The play 
is sometimes purposely made by a base runner from 
first or second base, to allow a team mate on third base 
to complete a run and score. This is fine team work. 



Glossary 83 

Sacrifice hit. The batting of the ball in such a way that 
there is no chance for the batsmen to make his first base, 
but opportunity is given a base runner to advance. For 
instance, the ball may be batted to the right so that it 
may be used to put out the batter, but be safely out of the 
way of runners on the bases. A bunt hit is often used to 
advance a player from first to second base, or from third 
to home. It would not be used for a run from third with 
two players out, as the run to home would not score on a 
play that put the batter out. 

Sliding to base. Base runners often throw themselves at 
full length on the ground when nearing a base and slide 
into it, head first, or feet first, to save time and dodge 
being tagged by the baseman. 

Smother a ball. To run in toward a ball and catch it be- 
fore it is spent or reaches the runner. This is apt to be 
done by fielders, especially for ^ ^ grounders " ; sometimes 
for low or straight balls, but not so often, as these are 
apt to be hard hit. 

Straight ball. A ball delivered to the bat on a straight fine 
as distinguished from drop balls and curved balls. 

Stealing a base. The advance of a base runner to the next 
base, unaided by a base hit, a put-out, or error in fielding 
or battery play. 

Strike. A hit at a good ball by a batter; or a good ball 
whether hit or not. A ball is good if it passes over the 
home plate at a height between the batter's knee and 
shoulder. A ball that goes outside of these limits is called 
a ^'ball,'' as distinguished from a ''strike." The umpire 
calls for each ball whether it be a ''strike" or a "ball." 
A batter is out who misses or passes three strikes provided 
the third (last) be caught by the catcher. 

Time at bat. The turn at bat of a player. It lasts from the 
time he takes his position as batsman until he is put out 
or becomes a base runner. He is not considered to have 
completed his time at bat, however, if he be advanced to 
first base by the umpire on called balls, by being hit by 
a pitched ball, or on a sacrifice hit. 



84 Baseball 

Triple play. The putting out of three players on one round 
of the ball ; that is, from the time the pitcher delivers the 
ball to the bat until he again holds it ready to pitch to 
the bat. 

Underhand throw. A method of throwing a ball by swing- 
ing the ball forward below shoulder level. 

Wild throw. A ball thrown or pitched to the bat that goes 
wide of a fair reach for the batter. 



BASKET BALL 



BASKET BALL 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Basket ball is 
probably the most popular indoor ball game, and is 
often played on outdoor courts. Indeed, though an 
entirely modern invention, having been originated 
only in 1892, no gymnasium or playground is now 
considered adequately equipped which does not have 
provision for this game. 

The name is derived from the goals, which are sus- 
pended baskets in the form of an iron ring or hoop to 
which is attached a net that serves to catch the ball 
when thrown in. The game is played by two teams 
of five players each who try to throw the ball each into 
the opponents' basket. Each player on a team is 
guarded by an opponent who stands near him, and in 
turn serves as guard to this same adversary. 

Fouls are penalized by allowing the opponents a free 
(unobstructed) throw for the goal of the offending 
team, regular play being stopped for this. The free 
throw line from which these free throws are made, and 
the free throw lane and circle leading to and sur- 
rounding it, are distinctive features of the marking of 
the court. 

The ball is a large, laced ball — that is, a rubber 
bladder inserted in a leather cover and inflated, the 
cover being then laced over it. This particular type 
of ball is another distinctive feature of the game, and 
one that has had many other applications. 

87 



88 Basket Ball 

The game is usually played in two twenty-minute 
halves, with an intermission of ten minutes between. 
The team wins the game which scores the greater num- 
ber of points during the forty minutes of play. 

The rules here given are those of the Joint Com- 
mittee representing the Amateur Athletic Union, 
the Young Men's Christian Association, and the 
National Collegiate Athletic Association. They are 
used by permission of the Committee and of the 
publishers of Spaulding's Athletic Library which issues 
the Official Handbook. 

THE COURT. — Basket ball can be played on any 
level ground or floor that is free from obstruction. A 
court may be rectangular or square, depending upon 
the shape of the gymnasium or of the ground space, 
upon which the playing is to be done ; 70 feet by 50 
feet is an ideal size for a court ; 90 X 50 feet are 
official maximum, and 60 X 35 minimum dimensions. 

SIDE AND END LINES. — The side-lines should be at 
least 3 feet from a wall or fence, so that there shall be 
no danger that a player rushing over a side-Hne will 
be injured. By mutual consent of opposing captains 
this distance may be changed. The end boundaries 
should be marked directly under, and on a line with, 
the board surface against which the basket goal is 
fastened. These fines must all be at least 2 inches 
wide. 

GOALS. — Exactly at the middle of the end-fines 
should be fastened the baskets or goals, 10 feet from 
the floor or ground. They should be attached to a 
flat board or other firm background (^^ backstop ")> 
6 feet wide and 4 feet high. The backboard must ex- 



Right Guard B 



Left Forward A 
• 




End Line 



6 Ft. Radius 

Left Guard B 



Right Forward A 



-Center B 

2 Ft. Radius 



Center A 



Right Forward's 
Left Guard A 




Left Forward B 
Right Guard A 



o-"' 



Basket A 



End Line 



BASKET BALL 
Regulation court and position of teams at start of game. 



89 



90 Basket Ball 

tend at least 3 feet above the metal ring or goal. The 
backstop must be perpendicular and firm. 

FREE THROW LINE. — Directly inward 15 feet 
from each goal is drawn a free throw, or foul Une, 2 
feet long, parallel to the end lines. From this foul 
line the free throws for goal are made which are 
awarded to an offended team as penalty for a foul 
committed by the opponents. This free throw line, 
and the throw from it, are protected from interfer- 
ence by a ^^ free throw lane " leading from the goal. 

FREE THROW LANE. — A lane, ending in a circle 6 
feet in diameter (3 foot radius) leads toward the center of 
the court from each goal. This lane is made by two lines 
parallel to the side-lines, which start 3 feet on each side 
of the basket ; from this point they are drawn upon the 
floor toward the opposite end of the court until they 
intersect a circle with its center placed 1 5 feet inward 
from the basket or goal. A similar figure should be 
drawn upon the floor at the opposite end of the court. 

CENTER CIRCLE. — Exactly in the center of the 
court should be drawn a 2-foot circle (diameter) in 
which the ball is put in play. 

A player always refers to the territory around the 
basket, into which his team is trying to toss the ball, 
as ^^ up the court." His forwards usually play ^' up 
the court." The territory around the basket into 
which the opponents are trying to throw the ball, is 
called ^' down the court." His guards usually play 
'^ down the court." 

The basket into which a team is trying to throw 
the ball is customarily spoken of in basket ball as their 



Teams 91 

own goal, although it is defended by the opponents. 
Thus, for team A, the goal marked B is called their 
own goal. It is for this basket that team A makes 
their free throws. 



TEAMS. — A team consists of 5 players — 2 for- 
wards, I center, and 2 guards. These players may 
move anywhere on the field. 

FORWARDS. — At the start of the game, the right 
and left forwards always play well up near the oppo- 
nents' basket, into which their team is endeavoring 
to toss the ball; after the start, they may move all 
over the court. The forwards should be agile, fast 
players and accurate shots, for to them in good part 
falls the majority of opportunities to tally. They 
should be able to get away from the guards of the 
opposite team, — to use the technical vernacular 
should be able to ^' lose '' or '' shake off " the opposing 
guards, each one of whom is playing close to a for- 
ward in the effort to prevent scoring. This is called 
" covering the forward." 

A forward should also be quick enough, after once 
having shaken off an opposing guard, to get back to 
him and effectively cover him, if the ball fall info the 
hands of the opponents, so that the guard, if he be 
close to his own goal, may not be able to '' shoot '' 
the ball through his opponent's basket. 

The forward need not necessarily be tall, as many 
of the most effective college forwards have been short, 
aggressive players. 

GUARDS. — The guards should be as tall and heavy 
as can be secured, so long as few other requisites as 



92 Basket Ball 

possible are sacrificed. Each should so well cover 
the forward against whom he is pitted that the forward 
seldom, if ever, has an opportunity for an undisturbed 
shot at the basket. A guard should have the ability 
to make long shots, so that, when opportunity offers, 
he will be able to score for his team. 

CENTER. — The center should be a very tall man, 
who is able to jump and reach high in the air. He 
should combine all the requisites of a forward and those 
of a guard. He should be in the very best of physical 
condition, as he is called upon to exhibit greater 
stamina than any other man on the team. When a 
member of his team has possession of the ball, the 
center must be up with his forwards, prepared to 
receive a pass from a team-mate and then either to 
shoot for the goal or pass the ball to another team- 
mate, who is in a better position for a shot. 

On the other hand, when a member of the opposing 
team has the ball, the center must be constantly on the 
alert, down with his own guards, covering the opposing 
center, who will be looking for an opportunity to shoot 
at the basket. When possible, it is his duty to secure 
the ball and pass it up the court to one of his own 
forwards. 

SUBSTITUTES. — In case of sickness or accident, or 
when, for other reasons, a Captain desires to play a sub- 
stitute player, he must notify the Referee, who will stop 
the game (in other words call time), and notify the 
Scorer before the game is resumed. Such a substitute 
must report to the Referee and Umpire and be recog- 
nized by them before entering the game. A player 
once removed may not later go back into the game. " 



General Rules 93 

NUMBERS. — All players in official games must 
wear numbers on their backs. These are made of 
felt, and at least 6 inches high and one inch wide. 

THE GAME: GENERAL RULES AND 
POINTS OF PLAY. — CHOICE of goals. — At the 

beginning of the game, the visiting team has the 
choice of goals; that is, may select the basket into 
which they will attempt to toss the ball. At the 
beginning of the second half the teams must change 
goals. 

PUTTING THE BALL IN PLAY. — At the beginning 
of the game, at the opening of the second half, after 
each goal made (from the field or as a free throw) 
and generally after being declared dead, the ball is 
put in play by being centered. For this the centers 
face each other within the two-foot circle in the cen- 
ter of the court. Each center faces the opponent's 
goal, through which he hopes to toss the ball and thus 
tally for his team. His two forwards should be " up 
the court,'' facing him and waiting for him to knock 
the ball to them. The rules require that the opposing 
centers, when about to jump for the ball, must each 
keep one hand behind his back. 

Opposite a center, and facing him, stands the cen- 
ter of the opposing team, whose forwards should be 
facing their own center. Each forward is " covered " 
by an opposing guard, belonging to the opposing team ; 
that is, each guard is prepared to prevent a forward 
from catching the ball and attempting to score, and 
with that end in view, each guard stands close to his 
opposing forward. 



94 Basket Ball 

The Referee makes certain that both teams, the 
Umpire, Timekeepers and Scorers are ready, and 
then, with the ball in his hand, steps to the side of the 
centers, and when just outside of the center ring, 
tosses the ball high in the air, so that it will drop be- 
tween the centers, who are facing each other. When 
the ball has reached its highest point, the Referee 
blows his whistle, to signify that the game has begun. 

The opposing centers jump high for the ball, each 
tries to bat it with an upraised hand to one or the other 
of his forwards. Neither center may catch the ball 
until another player has touched it. 

Out of bounds. — If, when the ball is centered, 
either center should bat it outside of the boundary 
lines of the court, the ball must be centered again. 

After a ball in play has gone out of bounds, it is put 
in play again by a player of the team that was not re- 
sponsible. The Referee indicates the team entitled to 
possession of the ball, and a member of that team 
plays it in ta a team mate by passing, tossing, or 
rolling. If the Referee is uncertain which of two 
opponents was nearer the ball when it went out of 
bounds, he tosses the ball between them, just within 
the boundary line, at the spot where the ball went 
out of bounds. 

When the game has been stopped for any reason 
(that is, when ^^ time " has been called), the two 
opposing players nearest the spot where the ball was 
last in play, must jump in this way for the ball when 
the game is resumed. Under these circumstances the 
Referee throws the ball in the air between them as near 
as possible to the spot where it was when the game 



Passing and Advancing the Ball 95 

was stopped. If for any length of time two opposing 
players both hold and tug at the ball, the Referee 
blows his whistle, stops the play, and puts the ball 
again in play by tossing it between the two at the 
spot where the holding was done. 

PASSING AND ADVANCING THE BALL. — After the 
ball is put in play each team tries to keep it in posses- 
sion by quickly passing it from one member to another 
around the bodies, between the legs, or over the 
heads of the opponents, until the ball is within range 
of their own basket, when one of the forwards, or the 
center, usually takes a shot at the goal. 

The ball may be thrown in a number of ways. The 
underhand manner of tossing the ball is the one that 
comes most easily to the beginner. The ball is held 
between the two hands on a level with the knees, 
which are slightly bent. As the body is straightened, 
the arms are brought upward. 

The ball can be thrown overhand, by holding it 
between the two hands just in front of the chest, with 
the knees sKghtly bent. As the body is straightened, 
the arms are shot upward and outward. This is con- 
sidered the most effective manner of shooting for goal. 

A third manner of passing or shooting is by holding 
the ball between the hands, over and behind the 
head, with the body bent sHghtly backward. By 
straightening the body and quickly bringing the arms 
forward, the ball can be accurately sent in the desired 
direction. 

These shots may be slightly varied ; or they may be 
made with one arm and hand instead of two, by bal- 
ancing the ball in the flat, open hand instead of hold- 



96 Basket Ball 

ing it between the palms of both hands. One-arm- 
shots, however, are not usually so accurate as those 
propelled by both arms and hands. 

Shots and passes should be made quickly and the 
player should not wait to adjust the ball in his hand, 
for by that time the opposing player will have borne 
down upon him and blocked the throw. Practice of 
the various kinds of throws and passes explained under 
^' Passing and Advancing the Ball " will lead to their 
being used almost or quite unconsciously in these quick 
plays. 

When making a low, underhand pass to a team-mate, 
the ball should be aimed at a point slightly higher than 
the pit of the opponent's stomach. Seldom should a 
pass be made very swiftly. Moderate speed will in- 
sure no fumbles, as missed balls are called. The low, 
underhand toss should be used for short passes and the 
overhead or overhand pass for the long distances. 
The ball should always be passed slightly in advance 
of a runner and not at his face. 

The receiver of a pass should always allow his hand 
or hands to give way a bit, at the moment that the ball 
comes in contact with his hands, and his fingers should 
point outward, so that there may be no danger of the 
ball touching the fingers before it strikes the palms. 

The ball may be advanced not only by passing, 
tossing, or other kinds of throws, but may also be 
rolled or batted. These plays may be made in any 
direction and with one or both hands. The ball may 
also be dribbled. 

Dribbling. — By dribbling is meant the act of tak- 
ing three or more steps, and at the same time bounc- 



Passing and Advancing the Ball 97 

ing the ball one or more times along the floor with 
one hand; both hands may be used, to start the 
dribble, and to pass the ball or throw for goal ; but 
after a dribble is once started if both hands touch 
the ball again simultaneously, it must be thrown 
immediately to another player or for the goal, or it is 
considered dead. 

A player may shoot for the basket after dribbling. 

A player may turn around with the ball without 
making progress. He may not run with the ball, 
kick it, or strike it with his fist, or hold it with any 
other part of his body than the hands, even to assist 
the hands. 

Two players of one team may touch the ball at 
the same time that a player of the opposing team is 
touching it, but no second player of a team may, 
under such circumstances, charge any player so 
touching the ball. 

Players may not strike, tackle, trip, push or hold 
an opponent, grasp his clothing, or in any way use the 
hands or arms to interfere with his progress. They 
may not ram an opponent with the shoulder, hack 
(strike a blow with the forearm when he is about to 
pass the ball), put one or both arms around him, or 
use any unnecessary roughness, or profane or abusive 
language. 

A player having the ball may not be impeded in 
any way, either by personal contact or otherwise. 
This is called holding. The only way to intercept 
his play is to catch the ball as he throws it. 

It is not legal to interfere in any way with a player 
who does not have the ball. This is called blocking. 



98 Basket Ball 

THROWING FOR GOAL. — A player should always 
learn to make shots directly through the iron ring and 
not endeavor to have the ball first carom off the back- 
board into the ring. If the ball strikes the ring and 
does not bound through in a clean try, there is a 
chance that it will strike the backboard and then 
bound through the ring; whereas if the attempt is 
made to play off the backboard, it is most difficult 
to strike the exact spot from which the ball will 
carom into and through the goal. It is always weU 
to shoot high in order that the ball drop into the 
basket. 

The method of throwing for goal may be the under- 
hand or overhand throw, or the throw from behind 
head, described under '^ Passing and Advancing the 
Ball.'^ 

The overhand shot for basket is preferable to the 
underhand, for the latter can be easily blocked. When 
trying a shot for goal, it is well to throw the ball, not 
directly at the edge of the basket, but so as to compel 
it to describe an arch, that the ball may drop through 
the ring from above and not just skim over the edge 
of the goal. 

It is a foul for a player to touch the basket while the 
ball is on the edge of it, or to touch the ball when it is 
in such a place. 

A goal does not score if the player throwing the ball 
had at that time any part of his body touching the 
floor outside the boundary lines. 

A goal does not count if made immediately after the 
commission of a foul by a team-mate and before the 
official has blown his whistle. 



Penalties: Free Throws 99 

PENALTY FOR FOULS: FREE THROWS — 

Whenever a team violates certain rules of the game, 
the Referee or Umpire blows his whistle for the play 
to stop, and awards to the opposing team as a penalty 
the right to take a free throw from the free throw Hne. 
By that is meant that any member of the opposing team 
may step behind the short foul line, which is fifteen 
feet in front of his own goal (the goal defended by the 
opponents), and attempt to toss the ball through his 
own goal, without interference. While he is doing 
this, neither team mates nor opponents may approach 
within the free throw lane or circle. The ball must 
be thrown within ten seconds after the Referee places 
it on the free throw line. 

The player who is selected by his Captain for the free 
toss usually stands about three to six inches behind 
the free throw line, with his feet spread a foot or two 
apart, and throws the ball either by means of an 
underhand or overhand toss. The training of a clever 
man to score on these free throws is an important 
factor in the strength or weakness of a team. 

If the ball passes through the goal from a free throw, 
a point is awarded to the side having made the throw 
and the ball is then put in play again at the center for 
the regular game ; that is, it is thrown up by the 
Referee at the center of the court, exactly as at the 
beginning of the game. If the ball fails to go through 
the iron hoop from the free toss, the players of both 
teams attempt to secure it and the gar.ie goes on as 
at any other time, when the ball is in play. At such 
time, however, no player may enter the free throw lane 
until the ball has touched the basket or backstop. 



100 Basket Ball 

If a foul be called upon a player of each of the oppos- 
ing teams at the same time, they are penaHzed by 
another player from each team being awarded a free 
throw ; but after both attempts, the ball is dead ; 
that is, it is not in play, and after the second trial is 
again centered. 

If, however, two fouls are called upon the same team 
at the same time, two free throws being awarded to the 
opponents as penalty to the offending team, the first 
thrower may have but one trial for the goal, and the 
ball is dead (not in play) after this throw. The second 
of the two players having a free trial may, however, 
have a second trial if ^his first throw missed. The ball 
is dead after the second trial, and must be centered. 

A player may not foul an opponent or his ball in 
any way, as by interference, when the latter is trying 
for goal in a free throw, nor may an opponent step 
within the free throw lane during such a throw. 

A player trying for goal with a free throw must 
make an honest try for the basket and must not step 
over the fifteen-foot mark before the ball has entered 
or missed the basket. 

AXIOMS. — Always stand between an opponent 
and his basket when his team has the ball. 

Always pass the ball high (over team-mate's head) 
in preference to passing it low. 

Always pass in front of a team-mate. 

Never make a short pass or dribble under opponent's 
basket ; in this way the ball is kept out of what is 
called the danger zone. 

FORMATIONS. — All well-coached teams have 
regular formations, which they use at the time of 



Out of Bounds loi 

passing the ball to each other in an effort to get it into 
an advantageous position for a shot at goal. Hours 
of practice enable a player to know just where his team- 
mates will be under certain circumstances, and al- 
most without thought he passes the ball in the proper 
direction. 

At the beginning of the game the center, by some 
understood signal, very often signifies in what direc- 
tion he will attempt to bat the ball. It may be that 
a very innocent looking crook of his right arm will 
signify to his entire team that he intends to at- 
tempt to bat the ball to his right forward. In the 
meantime the center runs toward his own goal and the 
right forward quickly passes the ball back to the 
center, who tries for a goal. Each of the other men 
has his assigned place during such a formation. A 
well-drilled team has many such formations, which, 
played at various stages of the game, often leave less 
able teams helpless and bewildered. 

OUT OF BOUNDS. — The ball is considered 
out of bounds when it has crossed one of the boundary 
Hnes and touched the floor, or when it is carried by a 
player who has one or both feet outside of one of the 
side or end Hnes. Whenever the ball goes out of 
bounds and bounces in again, it is considered in play. 
When the ball is carried or bounds out of bounds, to 
put it in play again, the Referee blows his whistle 
and awards the ball to the team that did not cause 
the ball to go out of bounds. A player of that team 
plays it from outside the boundary line, at the spot 
where it crossed that Hne, by tossing it into the court 
to a team-mate. 



102 Basket Ball 

If the Referee be uncertain as to which of two players 
caused the ball to go out of bounds, he tosses the ball 
between them. 

To purposely carry a ball across a boundary line, 
or to purposely cause the ball in any other way to go 
out of bounds, is a foul. 

A player to whom the ball has been awarded out of 
bounds must wait until he has passed the ball before 
stepping in again. If he was awarded the ball by the 
Referee he must toss it in to another player ; usually 
he attempts to pass it to an uncovered team-mate, 
that is, a team-mate who is not close to an opponent. 
This he must do from the spot where the ball went 
out, being careful not to step over the boundary line 
and into the court, while passing or before passing, 
the ball. He may not run in quickly and play the ball 
himself before another player has touched it. 

There may be no interference with a player who 
holds the ball out of bounds, and no player may hold 
the ball out of bounds for more than five seconds. 

CLASSIFIED FOULS AND PENALTIES 

methods of playing the ball 
(technical fouls) 
foul penalty 

Kicking or striking the ball Free try for goal, 
with the fist. 

Running with the ball Al- " 

lowance is to be made for 
player's momentum. Player 
may turn around without mak- 
ing any progress. 



Classified Fouls and Penalties 



103 



FOUL 

Use of both hands more 
than once, when dribbhng, un- 
less ball is immediately thrown 
to player or for goal. 



PENALTY 

Free try for goal. 



METHODS BETWEEN PLAYERS 

(classed as personal FOULS; FOR FOUR OF 
THESE A PLAYER IS DISQUALIFIED) 



Tackling, holding, or push- 
ing opponent. 

Blocking or using the hands 
or arms to interfere with the 
progress of a player. 

Grasping the clothing or 
person of an opposing player. 

A third player charging in 
with bodily contact when ball 
is held by two opponents. 



Free trial for goal, 
may disqualify. 



Referee 



THROWING FOR GOAL 



(CLASSED AS PERSONAL FOULS; FOR FOUR OF 
THESE A PLAYER IS DISQUALIFIED) 



Charging, pushing, or other 
rough play on a player throw- 
ing for basket. 

Flagrant roughness on player 
throwing for basket. 

Touching of basket or ball 
by opponent while ball is on 
the edge of the basket. 



Two free throws. 



Goal, if made, counts and 
offended team is allowed two 
free throws. 

Free trial for goal. This is a 
technical foul. 



104 



Basket Ball 



FOUL 

If a player trying for a goal, 
after having been awarded a 
free throw from the fifteen-foot 
mark, step over that free throw 
mark, before the ball has 
touched or missed the basket. 

Player, having been awarded 
a free throw from foul line, 
does not make an honest effort 
to throw the goal ; but instead 
throws the ball in such a man- 
ner that the ball will rebound 
into the hands of a team-mate. 

For a player to stand 
within or touch the free throw 
lane, or disconcert the player 
before ball reaches the basket. 



Goal is made, immediately 
after the commission of a foul 
and before the official had had 
an opportunity to blow his 
whistle. 



PENALTY 

Goal, if made, does not 
count. If not made, ball is 
not in play, but is tossed up 
from the center of the court 
in the usual manner by the 
Referee. 
Free trial for goal. 



If opposing team offends, 
player has another try, if goal 
missed ; if goal made it counts. 
If a member of his own team 
offends, goal does not count, 
and ball is in play. 

Goal does not count. 



PLAYER OR BALL OUT OF BOUNDS 



Intentionally crossing a 
boundary line (with one or 
both feet) with the ball in 
player's possession. 

Player out of bounds holds 
the ball more than five seconds. 

Player to whom ball has been 
awarded out of bounds steps 
over boundary and into court, 
before he has passed the ball. 



Ball goes to opponent out 
of bounds. 



Ball goes to an opponent out 
of bounds. 



Score 



105 



FOUL 

Interference with passing of 
ball by player outside of the 
court, before it has crossed the 
boundary line. 

To throw in a ball from 
out of bounds, a player must 
stand outside the court on an 
imaginary line drawn at right 
angles to the boundary Hne 
from the spot where the ball 
went out. He may not quickly 
run into the court and play 
the ball that he has thrown 
in, until another player first 
has touched it. 



PENALTY 

Free trial for goal. 



Ball goes to opponent out- 
side of boundary line. 



TIME —DELAY — LATENESS -— COACHING 



Persistent or intentional 
delay of game. 

One team fails to make its 
appearance or refuses to play 
after so instructed by Referee. 

If delay of more than one 
minute after Referee calls play 
for second half, or after time 
out. 

No player may be coached 
by any one during a game. 



Free trial for goal. 

Game goes by default to 
opponents. 

Ball put in play as though 
both teams on floor. 

Free trial for goal. 



SCORE. — A goal from the- field (that is, when the 
ball is in play ordinarily and not from a try for foul) , 
counts 2 points. A goal from the free throw line, called 
a free throw or try for goal, counts i point. Such a 
free throw is awarded when certain fouls have been 
committed. The team scoring the greater number of 



io6 Basket Ball 

points after both halves have been played, wins the 
game. In case of a tie at the end of the game the 
teams play on for 5 minutes, and if tie continues, repeat 
5-minute intervals of play until the game is decided. 

If a team defaults or forfeits the game, the score is 
2 to o, in favor of the team that has not offended. 

The game is played in two halves of 20 minutes 
each with a rest of 10 minutes between. For young 
players a rest of 2 minutes midway in each half is 
desirable. No change of goal is then made, nor may 
players be coached or leave the floor in that time. 

A simple way of keeping score is illustrated below. 
The score sheet represents the Flushing High School 
score in an imaginary game against Bryant High 
School. The first column contains the names of the 
players and their positions. In the second column are 
registered the goals made by each player and the goals 
as a result of free throws because of opponents' fouls. 
The latter are represented by + with a circle around 
it and the former by + without the circle. As 
the goals made in regular play each count 2 points, 
and the goals as a result of free throws allowed be- 
cause of opponents' fouls count i point, Flushing 
scored 8 points during the first half. 

In the second half, 7 points were scored. 

A similar sheet records Bryant's points. 

If desired, a record of attempts to throw a free goal 
which missed, can be kept by placing a o in the 
second column next to the player's name. 

The fact that Donoghue, Sasse, and S. Trowbridge 
each made a foul during the first half is recorded by 
+ in the third column opposite their respective names, 



Match Games 



107 



if the foul was technical, and with Pi (or 2, 3, 4) if foul 
was personal. The record of personal fouls and their 
numbering is important, as four such fouls disquahfy 
a player. 



NAME OF TEAM 


FIRST HALF i 


SECOND HALF 


Flushing H. S. 


GOALS 


FOULS 


GOALS 


FOULS 


Robertson, RF 


+ 




+ 


+ 


Donoghue (Capt.), LF 


+ e © 


Pi 


+ © 




Sasse, C 


+ 


Pi 




P2 


B. Trowbridge, RG 






+ 


Pi 


S. Trowbridge, LG 




+ 


















' 








li 8 




i 

1 7 





WHERE PLAYED Bryant H. S. DATE i 6 15 REFEREE 
Mr. A. Burroughs UMPIRE Mr. R. Smith TIMEKEEPER 
Mr. B. Kennedy SCORER A. Sherman WON BY Flushing 
High School SCORE 15-13 



MATCH GAMES. — The ball should be provided 
by the home team. It should be tightly inflated, in 
good condition, and so laced that it cannot be held 
by the lacing. 

The Amateur Athletic Union of the United States 
maintains that whenever match games between two 
teams representing two organizations are played, and 
the individuals on both teams are not registered, the 
players disqualify themselves from further partici- 



io8 Basket Ball 

pation against registered teams and from cornpetition 
in amateur track and field sports. 

Both the Amateur Athletic Union and the Young 
Men's Christian Association Athletic League issue 
sanctions for games and register players. 

The Amateur Athletic Union requires that teams 
from educational institutions must get sanctions for 
their games and register their players in the Amateur 
Athletic Union, whenever they play other teams not 
representing educational institutions. 
. OFFICIALS. — The officials for a match game of 
basket ball are a Referee, one Umpire, two Scorers, 
and two Timekeepers. Each team has its own 
Captain. 

THE REFEREE. — The visiting team has the right 
to choose the Referee, provided they notify the home 
team of their selection four days before the date of 
the game. 

The Referee may allow so-called ground laws, 
acceptable to both teams, and necessitated because of 
the local conditions of a particular court, and he 
may also allow a change in the time of halves, if both 
Captains are willing that the change be made. 

He is judge of the ball, decides when a goal has been 
made, when a foul has been committed, when the ball 
is in play or dead, and must approve of the other 
officials. He calls ^^ Foul ! " whenever he sees one 
committed, and play is thereupon suspended. He 
prescribes all penalties and promptly places the ball 
on the free throw line when he awards a free throw. 

The Referee puts the ball in play at the beginning of 
the game and after each temporary stop, by tossing 



Officials 109 

it up, between two opposing players, as explained 
under '' Putting the ball in play." He blows his 
whistle to start the game at the opening of twenty- 
minute halves, and after any interruption in the 
play, as for fouls. The Referee also blows his 
whistle to stop the game for any cause whatever, 
except for the expiration of the twenty-minute halves, 
though he relies mainly on the Umpire to signal for 
play to stop because of a foul. 

The Referee signals to the Timekeepers when time is 
to be taken out ; that is, when the Timekeeper is to 
stop his stop watch. The signal is usually made by 
raising his right hand and calling ^' Time out.'' The 
Timekeeper does not again start his watch until the 
ball is actually in play; that is, when the Referee 
again tosses the ball between opposing players, or 
when a player who has been awarded the ball by the 
Referee actually passes it. 

UMPIRE. — The home team is entitled to choose the 
Umpire. It is the main duty of this ofi&cial to blow his 
whistle whenever a foul is committed. The game is 
thus stopped. He then apprises the Referee of the 
foul committed and indicates the offender. The 
Referee then awards the penalty. He observes es- 
pecially players not near the ball, assists the Referee 
in out-of-bounds decisions, and helps to enforce the rule 
that forbids coaching. 

Fouls within the province of the Umpire are : Kick- 
ing or striking the ball with the fist ; running with the 
ball ; intentionally crossing the boundary line with the 
ball in player's possession ; use of both hands more 
than once when dribbling unless a throv/ or try for 



no Basket Ball 

basket is made immediately by player who has 
dribbled ; tackling, holding, or pushing opponent ; 
using hands or arms to interfere with the progress 
of a player; grasping the clothing or person of an 
opposing player ; striking, kicking, tripping, or hacking 
an opposing player ; putting one arm or both about 
an opposing player ; and fouling an opponent trying for 
goal. 

SCORERS. — The two Scorers are appointed by the 
home team. The duty of these officials is to keep 
an accurate account of the free tries for the goal, of 
the number of goals made by each team, and of the 
number of goals made by each player. They should 
note especially the number of fouls made by each 
player, and whether technical or personal.. They 
should notify the Referee promptly w^hen a fourth 
personal foul has been made by any player. 

Score books, filled out in blank upon which such 
records can be easily kept, can be purchased at any 
sporting goods store. Should the score of the two 
Scorers differ, the Referee decides, and in favor of 
the lower score unless he knows facts to verify the 
higher one. 

TIMEKEEPERS. — The Timekeepers are appointed 
by the home team. It is a Timekeeper's duty to blow 
his whistle at the moment that the twenty-minute 
halves expire. That is, he notes the time at which the 
game begins, and blows his whistle twenty minutes 
later to signify the end of the first half. In estimating 
this, he does not include in the twenty minutes any 
time that the Referee has ordered taken out for such 
interruptions as stops, disputes, or accidents. A 



Outfit III 

Timekeeper never gives the signal for the game to 
start : this is done by the Referee. Neither does the 
Timekeeper give the signal to stop for a foul or for 
anything except the expiration of a twenty-minute 
playing period. 

CAPTAINS. — The Captains of each team report to 
the Referee before the game begins, and thereafter 
they, and they only, are entitled to bring to the notice 
of the officials violations of the rules or privileges 
claimed. Captains decide when substitutes are neces- 
sary, select these, and report the fact at once to the 
Referee. 

OUTFIT. — The BALL is round, not less than 30 
and not more than 32 inches in circumference. It 
consists of a rubber bladder which is inserted in a 
leather cover and inflated. The opening in the cover 
is then laced together. The completed ball must 
weigh, according to official requirements, not less than 
20 nor more than 23 ounces. Basket balls range in 
price from S4.50 to $6. A good ball costs $5. 

The BASKETS OR GOALS are nets of cord fastened 
to metal rings 18 inches in diameter. These rings 
are attached to wooden backgrounds, or back-stops, 
6 feet long horizontally and 4 feet high, the boards 
three quarters of an inch in thickness. The regulation 
height of baskets for adults is 10 feet from the ground. 
Goals (baskets) cost $4 per pair, without the back-stop. 

For out-of-doors, the backboards and baskets may 
be attached to posts sunk in the ground. A pair of 
posts, backboards, and nets can be bought for $40. 

DRESS. — Rubber-soled, well-fitting, soft, leather 
shoes are well-nigh a necessity for the expert player. 



112 Basket Ball 

So-called suction shoes, the rubber soles of which have 
perforations which enable the player to obtain a firm 
purchase on the floor, cost $4 per pair. 

Men usually wear short, padded flannel trousers 
and a sleeveless worsted shirt. 

Women wear gymnasium suit, including short, 
Zuave trousers or knickerbockers. 

HISTORY. — The game of basket ball is of com- 
paratively recent origin. Dr. James Naismith in- 
vented the game in 1892. He was then connected 
with the Young Men's Christian Association Training 
School at Springfield, Massachusetts, in a class that 
was studying the elements of successful games and 
trying to invent new games to include these elements. 
He recognized the need of a game to fill the breach 
between the football season in the fall and that of 
baseball in the spring. One rule and change after 
another was added to the original simple game, as 
need arose, until, through a gradual evolution, the 
present game resulted. 

Basket ball is the first deliberately invented ball 
game to become largely popular. Now no gymnasium 
or playground is complete without provision for it, 
and in the United States match games are witnessed 
yearly by hundreds of thousands of spectators during 
the winter months, when many outdoor sports must 
needs be temporarily abandoned. 



Glossary 113 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Official Handbook 

Official Basket Ball Guide. Spalding's Athletic Library. 
(New York, American Sports Publishing Company.) 

The Game 

How to Play Basket Ball. By George T. Hepbron. Spalding's 
Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publish- 
ing Company.) 

Athletic Games for Women. By Gertrude Dudley and Frances 
A. Kellor. (New York, Henry Holt and Company, 1909.) 



GLOSSARY 

Backboard ; Back stop. Board (6' X 4') back of the goal. 

Basket. The goal. 

Blocking. Impeding the progress of a player who does not 
have the ball. 

Center. The player on each team who occupies the center 
of the playing space at start of game, and first tries for 
the ball. Also used to designate the circle in the center 
of the court, over which the ball is put in play. 

Center ball. Ball thrown up between opposing centers at 
the center of the playing space by Referee. 

Centered ball. Sam.e as center ball. 

Clean-shot. A shot that sends the ball through the goal 
without first touching the backboard or rim of basket. 

Court. Playing space, bounded by side and end lines. 

Covered. A player is covered w^hen his opponent follows' 
him so closely that he is not free to pass the ball or shoot 
for goal. 

Dead-ball. A ball no longer in play, the game being in sus- 
pense until it is again formally put in play. 

Forward. Player whose position is close to the basket into 
which his team is attempting to toss the hall. 
I 



114 Basket Ball 

Free throw lane: Foul lane. A space marked in front 

of each goal within which no player may enter while an 

opponent is making a free throw for goal. 
Free throw line: Foul line. Short line behind which a 

player stands for a free throw. 
Foul made. Expression used to signify that the player en- 
titled to a free throw has succeeded in tossing the ball 

into the basket; he has ^^made his foul.'' 
Fumble. A ball unintentionally dropped by player receiving it. 
Goal. Another term for the basket; also used to signify 

the act of having tossed the ball into the basket. 
Ground rules. Rules especially applicable to a particular 

court, because of some obstruction or other defect. 
Halves. The two twenty-minute periods, that make up the 

playing time. 
Held ball. A ball held by one or both hands by each of two 

opponents. 
Holding. To interfere in any manner with the progress of a 

player who has the ball, whether by personal contact or 

otherwise. 
In play, a ball legally active in play. 

Made his foul. A phrase signifying that a player has suc- 
ceeded in a free throw, awarded for an opponent's foul. 
Own goal. The basket into which a team is trying to throw 

the ball (defended by the opponents) is called the thrower's 

own goal. 
Sanction. Permission to compete given by the governing body. 
Shot for basket. Attempt to toss ball into basket. 
Tie. The score when both teams have made the same number 

of points. 
Time-called. Time that, as a result of an interruption is 

"called" by the Referee, and not counted in estimating 

halves. 
Try for foul. Act of attempting to toss the ball into the 

basket from the foul line ; a free throw. 
Try for goal. Free throw, same as above. 
Up the court. Territory about the basket, into which a 

team is attempting to throw the ball. 



BASKET BALL (LINE GAME) 



^ 


9 




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1 


f "^ " mI 






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^^^^B 




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^^B' ^v^^ 




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BASKET BALL AT SMITH COLLEGE 
Overguarding (incorrect) Correct vertical guarding 

Guarding round (incorrect) Correct aidewise guarding 

From the "Official Basket Ball Guide for Women," by Senda Berenson Abbott; courtesy of 
(ii6) Spalding's Athletic Library 



BASKET BALL (LINE GAME) 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — This game, as in the 
original form of basket ball, is played by two teams, 
each of which tries to toss or throw a ball into the 
opponents' goal, which consists of a suspended basket. 
Each player is guarded by a player of the opposing 
team. Methods of playing the ball, of guarding, and of 
interfering are carefully prescribed by the rules. 
Most infringements of rules (fouls) are penalized by 
stopping the game and allowing the opponents a free 
throw {ix., a throw without interference) for the goal, 
guarded by the opponents, the throw being made from 
the free throw line 15 feet in front of that goal. 

A goal thrown from the field when the game is 
actively in progress, scores 2 points ; a goal made from 
a free throw scores i point. The game is played in 
two halves of 15 minutes each, with a ten-minute 
intermission between. The team wins which has the 
higher score at the end of the second half. 

The line game differs from regular basket ball in 
several particulars, all designed to make the game less 
strenuous. It is used by both men and women, but 
so much by the latter that it is often called '' Basket 
Ball for Women.'' 

The court is divided by transverse lines into three 
(sometimes two) separate sections, or zones. Players 

117 



ii8 Basket Ball (Line Game) 

from each team are stationed in each zone and may 
not go beyond it. This does away with the mass 
play which largely characterizes the regular game. 
A larger number of players may participate, and some 
of the playing rules are modified. 

COURT. — DIMENSIONS. — The game is played 
indoors or out of doors on level ground, free from 
obstruction. On this a court is outlined loo feet 
long by 60 feet wide. By mutual consent of two con- 
testing teams outside boundary lines may be omitted. 
This is done for lines close to walls or fences. 

FIELD-LINES. — One third of the distance from each 
end, a field-line, parallel to the end-lines, is drawn en- 
tirely across the court from side-Hne to side-line. These 
two field-lines divide the field into three equal zones, 
called the home section (the one nearest a team's 
own goal), the center section, and the guard section. 

When the court is less than 2500 square feet in area, 
it may be divided into two equal sections, instead of 
three, by one field-line drawn across the center. 
Opposing centers may then run from one field to the 
other (This they may not do on a three-zone field), 
but may not shoot for goal from the field or foul lines. 

GOALS. — In the center of each end-line is fastened 
a goal or basket. This consists of an iron ring 18 
inches in diameter (inside measurement), to which 
is hung a small net, open at the bottom, the rim of the 
basket being placed 10 feet above the floor. The 
basket, if not placed on a wall or other obstructing 
surface, must be provided with a background or back- 
stop, 6 feet wide by 4 feet high. This backstop must 
extend at least 3 feet above the metal ring or goal 



End Line 




Home Section for Team B 
Guard Section for Team A 



Left Forward 



• 
Right Forward 



Forward Center 



Q 



2 Ft. Radius 



Jumping Center 
Center Section for Both Teams ^ 

Back Center 



Field Line 



Left Guard 



Home Section for Team A 
Guard Section for Team B 



Right Guard 




End Line 



Goal for 
Team A 



Basket 



4- ^ 60 Ft.-. -:-- 

BASKET BALL (LINE GAME) 
Regulation court and position of one team of nine players at start 
/jjg\ of a game: Team A in the field. 



120 Basket Ball (Line Game) 

basket, and must be perpendicular and j&rm. The 
rim of the goal basket must be 6 inches in front of 
this wall or backstop. 

FREE THROW LINE. — At a distance of 15 feet in 
front of each goal is a 24-inch free throw or foul line, 
parallel to the end lines ; from this are made the free 
throws for goal which are awarded a team for various- 
fouls committed by the opponents. 

FREE THROW LANE. — Leading to this free throw 
line, and surrounding it, is a free throw or foul lane 
within which no other player than the thrower may 
enter when a free try for goal is being made. 

The free throw lane consists of two straight lines, 
which start at the end-line, 3 feet on each side of its 
center (i.e., 3 feet on each side of the point over which 
the basket is placed), and drawn from there inward, 
toward the center of the court 12 feet. They are 
parallel to each other and to the side-lines and make 
a lane 6 feet wide. At their inner ends they intersect 
the arc of a circle, 12 feet in diameter (a 6-foot radius) 
the center of which is the center of the free throw Kne. 

CENTER CIRCLE. — In the exact center of the field 
is drawn a 2-foot circle (i-foot radius) in which the 
centers stand when the ball is put in play. 

Note. —This court differs from that of the original, or 
one-field game, in that it is larger in its total area and is divided 
in sections by field-lines. In all other particulars it is the same. 

TEAMS. — Teams may consist of from 5 to 9 
players each. If 5 play, they are named left and right 
forward, center, and left and right guard, as in the 
regular game. The two forwards are restricted to the 



Choice of Goals 121 

home section, the center to the center section (except 
on a small court, as explained under "' Court ") and 
the guard to the guard section. If more players are 
used, each is assigned to one of the three zones, until 
the maximum number, 9, is reached, when 3 players 
are placed in each zone. When 6 players make up a 
team, the additional player becomes a side-center in 
contradistinction to the jumping-center (i.e., one 
who jumps for the ball when it is put in play) . 

When 9 play, a goal-guard assists the guards, and 
usually plays nearer the goal than the right and left 
forwards, who play up near the field-line. The jump- 
ing-center is then assisted by a back-center, who usually 
plays over to the right and back of the center zone, and 
by a forward-center, who plays to the left and forward 
portion of the center zone. A goal keeper, who plays 
near the basket into which he hopes to throw the ball, 
assists the two forwards, who play up nearer the field- 
line. 

Each team elects a Captain. 

SUBSTITUTES. — Substitutes may take the place 
of players disabled or disqualified. When this is 
done the Referee calls '' Time,'' and play is suspended 
until the change is made, but this may not be for more 
than five minutes. 

A player who has once left a game may not return 
to it. 

CHOICE OF GOALS. — Before the game starts 
the Captains decide by lot which shall choose the first 
goal. For the second half the teams must exchange 
goals, changing places to defend the goal which they 
attacked during the first half. 



122 Basket Ball (Line Game) 

THE GAME. — PUTTING THE BALL IN PLAY. — 

The game is started by centering the ball. For this, 
the two jumping-centers stand facing each other within 
the center circle. Their feet must be entirely within 
the circle. The Referee then throws the ball high 
in the air so it will drop between them, blowing the 
whistle as he does so. On this signal the centers jump 
for the ball, each trying to bat it with the open hand 
toward a team-mate. The center may play the ball 
before another player has touched it. 

The ball is thus put in play at the center at the open- 
ing of each half, and always after a goal has been made, 
whether from the field or from a free throw. 

PASSING AND ADVANCING THE BALL. — Each team 
attempts to keep the ball in its possession by quickly 
passing (throwing) it to team-mates around the bodies, 
or over the heads of the opponents, until the ball is 
within range of its own basket (i.e., the basket guarded 
by the opponents), when one of the forwards, or the 
center, usually takes a shot at the goal. Throwing and 
batting, with one or both hands, are the only methods 
of advancing the ball. It may not be handed, kicked, 
bounced, or hit with the fist. 

The ball must be caught with two hands, as a player 
is not considered to have secured it unless it is in 
both hands. , 

After receiving the ball, a player should at once pass 
it to a team-mate, being careful not to advance (run 
or walk) with the ball in his possession. A player may, 
however, turn on one foot while holding the ball so 
long as he does not advance. 

While the ball must thus be played from the spot 



Guarding and Interfering 123 

where it was received, allowance must be made for 
the impetus of a running player receiving it. If a 
player receives the ball while traveling quickly toward 
an end-Kne or side-line, he is not considered out of 
bounds if his impetus carry one foot over the line. 
Both feet must be over the line, if he is to be considered 
out of bounds. 

The ball must be thrown within three seconds after 
it is received, unless a player has fallen or is out of 
bounds. For a fallen player, the three seconds are 
counted from the moment he regains liis feet. A 
player awarded the ball out of bounds may hold the 
ball five seconds, but not longer. 

The ball may be bounced, only once, and this 
may be with one or both hands ; but if bounced, it 
must bound at least as high as the knee. To bounce 
the ball more than once in succession is called dribbling 
and is not permissible. Neither may the ball be 
tossed in the air and bounced on the hand to evade 
the rule that forbids holding the ball. This is called 
'' juggling,'' and, Hke dribbhng, is not permissible. 

A player must be on his feet or jumping when play- 
ing the ball; that is, no player may hand, bounce, or 
roll the ball to another player, nor may the ball be 
passed to a team-mate by a player when prone on the 
ground. This is one of the distinctive rules of the line 
game, being intended to prevent the players falling 
on one another, or any play on the ground. 

GUARDING AND INTERFERING. — To keep oppo- 
nents from passing the ball to their own team-mates, 
or throwing a goal, each player acts as a guard to an 
opponent. Guarding is done entirely in a vertical 



124 Basket Ball (Line Game) 

plane. That is, the arms of the guard may be 
stretched vertically upward or downward, or directly 
to the side in adateral line ; and a guard may jump or 
crouch to block the throw of a ball ; but he may not 
reach forward or around an opponent with the arms, 
or lean forward with the body. To so reach or bend 
forward in guarding is a foul. When the raised arms 
are arched over an opponent it is called over-guarding. 

A player may not be guarded by two opponents at 
the same time, one in the front and one behind. 
That manner of foul is termed ^' boxing up.'' 

A player may gain possession of the ball only when 
an opponent has thrown, bounced, or dropped it. 
In other words, the ball may not be snatched, batted, 
or in any way taken from the hands of a player, or 
knocked from his grasp. In the language of the 
official rules, 

^' A player may not guard with the hand touching 
the ball ; neither may one put a hand on the ball after 
an opponent has secured it. Two players on the same 
team may not play the ball at the same time." 

Personal interference is not permissible ; that is, 
no holding, tackling, pushing, kicking, shouldering, 
tripping, or striking is allowable. Grasping the cloth- 
ing is considered holding a player. As before stated, 
all interference must be by blocking, that is, by inter- 
posing one's arms or other part of the person in the 
path of a player or ball, or by catching a ball after 
it has left the hands of an opponent. 

THROWING FOR GOAL. — The main object of the 
game is, of course, throwing the ball into the goal 
(basket) that is guarded by the opponents. While 



Throwing for Goal 125 

(except for free throws) this may be done from any 
part of the field, it is not considered good play to risk 
a throw from too great a distance, so goal- throwing is 
left to the forwards, the other players on a team try- 
ing to pass the ball to their forward players. 

Much practice and skill are needed to receive a ball 
and throw it quickly into the basket before the op- 
posing guard can interfere. 

A player throwing for goal from the field {i.e., not a 
free throw) and missing it, may throw any number of 
times in succession without the ball first going into 
the hands of another player. 

A player to score a goal, must have his feet, and all 
parts of his person, within bounds when throwing. 
A goal thrown with a foot even partly over the line 
does not score ; if the goal is not made from such a 
throw for the basket, the ball is considered in play, and 
the game goes on without stopping. 

A goal does not score if a foul has been committed 
by the throwing team so closely before the throw that 
the Referee's whistle could not be blown. Under any 
circumstances, a ball leaving the thrower's hands before 
an official's whistle is blown, scores if it makes the goal. 

A ball to score must go in the basket and stay there 
(not bound out) or pass completely through if the net 
be open at the bottom. 

A ball may not be touched by an opponent while it 
is on the edge of the basket, nor may the basket be 
touched under such circumstances. For such inter- 
ference with the making of a goal, i point is awarded 
to the offended team (the team that threw the ball). 

Players sometimes commit a foul when an opponent 



126 Basket Ball (Line Game) 

is throwing for the basket, thinking the opponent's 
score will gain less by such means than by a goal made. 
Such intentional fouls are penalized if committed 
three times while one player is trying to throw the 
goal. The penalty consists in i point awarded to 
the opponents, who are also awarded a free throw for 
each of the three fouls, and, in addition, should the 
ball make the goal, will score the usual 2 points for 
that. On such a play it is therefore possible to make 

5 points as follows : 

Goal thrown 2 points 

Goal made from each of 3 free throws 3 points 

For 3 fouls in succession while throwing for goal . . i point; 

Total 5 points 

FREE THROWS ; PENALTIES FOR FOULS. — The 

punishment for most fouls is a free throw for goal 
awarded to the opponents. This throw may be made 
only by one of the forwards designated by the Captain 
of the offended team. The thrower stands in front 
of his own goal (a term used in basket ball to desig- 
nate the goal guarded by the opponents) and back 
of the 15-foot line. No other player may be within 

6 feet, or within the free throw lane (foul lane). If 
an opponent transgresses, another try is awarded ; if 
a team-mate transgresses, the goal if made does not 
count, and whether made or not, the ball is afterward 
put in play at the center. : 

If a foul is called upon each team at the same time, 
both are entitled to a free throw ; but the ball is dead 
after each try and is thrown up at center, after each 
team has had its try. 



Out of Bounds 127 

If a goal is made from a free throw, without fouls 
by either team, the ball is thereafter considered dead 
and is put in play by being thrown up in the center 
between the jumping-centers. 

If a goal is not made from a free throw, the ball is 
considered in play and team-mates or opponents may 
at once enter the free throw lane to play upon it. 

OUT OF BOUNDS. — A ball is out of bounds when it 
has completely crossed a side or end line, either on the 
ground, or in the hands of a player having one or both 
feet over the line. A ball touching a line is not out of 
bounds. A ball touching the ground beyond a Hne, 
but overhanging the line, is out of bounds. 

When the ball goes out of bounds, the Referee's 
whistle is blown for play to stop, and the ball is thrown 
in as here described. 

^ A ball that goes out of bounds and then of itself 
immediately returns again, is considered in play, and 
the game is not stopped, unless the Referee's whistle 
is blown. If the whistle is blown, the ball is thrown in 
as described below. 

A ball out of bounds must be thrown in by a player 
of the team opposed to the one that caused it to go out ; 
that is, by the team opposed to that of the player who 
touched it last. For this purpose the Referee desig- 
nates a player standing nearest to where the ball left 
the field of play. If the Referee cannot decide which 
side touched the ball last, he tosses the ball between 
any two opposing players, 5 feet within the boundary 
Hues, but on a Hne at right angles to the point where 
the ball went out. 

To throw the ball in from out of bounds, the player 



128 Basket Ball (Line Game) 

designated must stand on an imaginary line drawn 
at right angles to where the ball crossed the boundary- 
line. He may stand at any distance outside the 
boundary and throw in the ball in any direction. This 
player may then enter the field, but may play the ball 
only after another player (of either team) has touched 
it. The player who is throwing in the ball may hold 
it for 5 seconds, but not longer. He must not re-cross 
the boundary line before playing the ball. No other 
player may be outside the boundary Kne when the ball 
is being thrown in, nor may the thrower-in be inter- 
fered with in any way. 

In case of failure to observe all of these rules for 
correct throwing in of the ball, the Referee must 
require the same player to throw it in again. 

CLASSIFIED RULES, FOULS AND PENALTIES 

METHODS OF PLAYING THE BALL 

Violations of Rules Penalties Jurisdiction of 

Advancing with the ball, Free throw from Referee or 
while in bounds. foul line. Umpire. 

Ball bounded on floor '' '' 

more than once. 

Ball held more than 3 " " 

seconds. Ball may be 
bounded once and then 
thrown. If, however, 
player delays game, foul 
must be called by Referee 
or Umpire. (A player may 
hold the ball 5 seconds 
when it is out of bounds.) 

To place hand or hands 



Classified Fouls 



129 



Violations of Rules 



Penalties Jurisdiction of 



on ball after opponent has 


Free throw from Referee or 


secured it. (Player must 


foul hne. Umpire. 


have two hands on ball, in 




order that it be considered 




in his possession.) 




Snatch or bat ball out of 


yy 9> 


opponent's hands. 




Ball may not be juggled, 


)9 99 


i.e., tossed and caught again 




to avoid violation of the 




three-second-holding rule. 




To hand, bounce, or roll 


» » 


ball to another player. 




To throw ball to another 


» jj 


player while not on one or 




both feet or jumping in the 




air. 

More than one player of 


» '99 


the same team tackling the 




ball at the same time, pro- 




vided an opposing player 




touch it at the same time. 




Kicking or striking the 


W J> 


ball with the fist. 




Running with the ball. 


» l> 


Allowance is to be made for 




player's momentum. Play- 




er may turn around without 




making any progress. 




METHODS BETWEEN PLAYERS 


Guarding in other than 


Free throw from Referee or 


vertical plane; it is a 


foul line. Umpire. 



breach of rules to reach - 
over, or around opponent in 
order to prevent a pass. 



130 



Basket Ball (Line Game) 



Violations of Rules 

Two players, one on each 
side of an opponent, hold up 
their hands and ^'box him 
up" so that he can not try 
for basket. 

Commission of three suc- 
cessive guarding fouls of 
same kind, or of three line 
fouls. 

Commission of four 
guarding fouls of same kind, 
or of four line fouls. 

Tackling, holding, or 
pushing opponent. 

Using the hands or arms 
to interfere with the prog- 
ress of a player. 

Grasping the clothing or 
person of an opposing 
player. 

Putting one arm or both 
about an opposing player. 



Penalties Jurisdiction of 



Free throw from 
foul line. 



Warning. 



Referee or 
Umpire. 



Disqualification. Referee. 



Free throw from 
foul line. 



Referee or 
Umpire. 



THROWING FOR GOAL 



Player, while trying for 
goal, fouled three times. 



Touching of basket or 
ball by opponent, while ball 
is on the edge of the basket. 

If a player trying for a 
goal, after having been 



Extra point for 
offended team ; 
goal counts if made 
and a free throw is 
awarded for each 
foul committed. 

Point awarded 
to the offended 
side. 

Goal, if made, 
does not count. If 



Referee or 
Umpire. 



Referee. 



Classified Fouls 



131 



Violations of Rules 

awarded a free throw from 
the 15-foot mark, step over 
that foul Kne mark, before 
the ball has entered or 
missed the basket. 



Player, having been award- 
ed a free throw from foul 
line, does not make an hon- 
est effort to throw the foul ; 
but instead throws the ball 
in such a manner that the 
ball will rebound into the 
hands of a team-mate. 

To stand within or step 
within the foul lane, or in- 
terfere vath the ball before 
it reaches the basket, when 
a player is trying for a foul. 



Penalties Jurisdiction of 



Goal made by player, a 
portion of whose body 
touches the floor or ground, 
outside of the boundary 
line. 

Goal is made, immedi- 
ately after the commission 
of a foul by a team-mate 
and before an official has 
had opportunity to blow his 
whistle. 



not made, ball is 
not in play, but is 
tossed up from the 
center of the court 
in the usual man- 
manner by the Ref- 
eree. 

Goal, if made, 
does not count, and 
whether made or 
not, the ball is 
brought back to the 
center of the court 
and there centered 
by the Referee. 

If opposing team 
offends, player has 
another try. If a 
member of his own 
team offends, or if 
members of both 
teams offend, goal 
does not count, and 
if missed or made, 
ball is thrown up 
at center. 

Goal not allowed. 
If not made, ball is 
in play. If made, 
ball is centered. 

Goal does not 
count. 



Referee. 



132 



Basket Ball (Line Game) 



PLAYER OR BALL OUT OF BOUNDS 



Violations of Rules 

Crossing line out of 
bounds with one or both 
feet. (Allowance to be 
made for the momentum of 
a player, who was running 
and then stopped.) If one 
foot unintentionally goes 
over the boundary line, it 
is not a foul, but if the other 
follows, foul must be called. 
(Player may turn around 
with ball; but one foot 
must be kept in same line.) 

Touching field-line ^or 
zone with any part of body 
or clothing. (Player may 
pick up ball from adjoin- 
ing zone, if he can do so 
without violating above 
rule. 

' Intentionally crossing a 
boundary line with the ball 
in player's possession (with 
either one or both feet). 

Player causes ball to go 
out of bounds, by allowing 
it to touch any other part 
of his body, by batting or 
other means. 



Penalties Jurisdiction of 



Free throw from 
foul line. 



Ball goes to op- 
ponent at the spot 
where it left field of 
play. If it is 
doubtful as to 
which player 

caused the ball to 
go out of bounds, 
the ball should be 
tossed up between 
two nearest oppo- 



Ref eree or 
Umpire. 



Linesman. 



Referee or 
Umpire. 

Referee. 



Classified Fouls 



133 



Violations of Rules 



Player out of bounds 
holds the ball more than 
five seconds. 

Player out of bounds 
steps over boundary and 
into court, before. the ball is 
played. 

Interference by opponent 
of player who holds the ball- 
outside of the court. 



To throw in a ball from 
out of bounds, a player 
must stand outside the 
court on imaginary line at 
right angles to boundary 
line where ball went out. 
He may not quickly run 
into the court and play the 
ball that he has thrown in, 
until another player first 
has touched it. 



Penalties Jurisdiction of 



nents, where ball 
went out of bounds. 

Ball goes to op- 
ponent at same 
spot. 

Ball goes to op- 
posing player at 
same spot. 

First interfer- 
ence, ball goes back 
to player outside, 
to be passed in 
again. Second in- 
terference, foul for 
delaying tlie game. 

Ball goes to op- 
ponents at same 
spot, outside of 
boundary line. ' 



Referee. 



TIME; DELAY; LATENESS 



Persistent or intentional 
delay of the game. 

One team fails to make 
its appearance. 

Both teams late, but later 
team fifteen minutes behind . 



Free throw from 
foul line. 

Game by default 
to other team. 

Later team must 
play short-handed 
or forfeit the game. 



134 Basket Ball (Line Game) 

SCORE. — A goal from the field (that is, thrown 
when the ball is in play ordinarily and not from a free 
try for foul) counts 2 points. A goal from the foul 
line, called a free throw or try for goal, counts i point. 
Such a free throw is awarded when certain fouls have 
been committed. 

The game is played in two halves of 15 minutes 
each, with an intermission of 10 minutes between. 
Captains and Referee may agree to change this time ; 
or, in championship games, the committee in charge 
may do so. The team scoring the greater number of 
points after both halves have been played, wins the 
game. In case of a tie at the end of the game, the 
teams play on until one team or the other has made 
two more points than its opponent, either from the 
field or from free throws or by both methods. 

If a team defaults or forfeits the game, the score is 
2 to o, in favor of the team that has not offended. 

OFFICIALS. — These consist of a Referee, 2 
Umpires, 4 Linesmen, a Timekeeper, and a Scorer. 

Note, — This list of officials differs from the original game 
in having an additional Umpire (two instead of one) and four 
Linesmen, there being no officials of the latter kind in the 
other game. 

REFEREE. — The visiting team in a match game has 
a right to choose the Referee, provided they notify 
the home team of their selection four days before the 
date of the game. 

The Referee has general direction of the game and is 
its supreme authority. In detail his duties consist in : 

(a) Judging of the ball ; that is, whether or not it 



Officials 135 

has gone through the basket and scored a goal; 
whether it is out of bounds, in play, or out of play. 

(b) Putting the ball in play at the beginning of each 
half, and at any other time when it has been out of 
play; namely, after each goal made, after all fouls, 
and after any other stoppage in the game, as for 
accidents or disputes. 

(c) He signals for the start and close of each half of 
the game, and for play to be resumed after fouls or 
other cessation of play. This he does by blowing a 
whistle as he tosses the ball. 

(d) He signals for play to stop for any fouls which 
he sees, and which are not signaled by the Umpires, 
though he relies mainly on the Umpires and Linesmen 
for these. 

(e) He signals to the Timekeeper to take out time 
for any stoppage of the game, in estimating the twenty- 
minute halves. 

(f) He indicates which team is to have the ball after 
it has been out of bounds (the team, whose member 
was not guilty of having caused the ball to go out of 
bounds, is entitled to possession). 

(g) He takes general direction of the game and of 
its other officials ; he is its supreme authority. He 
decides all disputed points. He should be well in- 
formed on all the rules of the game and on the duties 
of other officials, and should be experienced in the 
game, that he may judge of rapid action and make 
quick decisions. 

UMPIRES. — The two Umpires are appointed by 
the home team. 
The Umpires are assigned each to one half of the 



136 Basket Ball (Line Game) 

field. Their main duty is to watch for fouls in which 
players interfere illegally with one another, or play 
the ball wrongly. Umpires are not concerned with 
fouls that consist in overstepping the lines, as these 
are called by the Linesmen, nor with whether or not the 
ball be out of bounds or make a goal, as the Referee 
judges of the ball in these ways. 

An Umpire calls a foul as soon as he sees it ; that is, 
he blows his whistle for play to stop and calls " Foul ! " 

He then indicates the offender and reports the 
foul to the Referee. The latter then awards the 
penalty. A player may not dispute with him. The 
fouls to be observed by an Umpire are : 

Advancing with the ball. 

Stepping out of bounds with one or both feet. 

Holding the ball longer than three seconds. 

Dribbling ; juggling ; overguarding ; boxing up ; 
guarding with one hand touching the wall; 
personal interference. 

Touching a ball in hands of opponents. 

Two players of one team having hands on ball 
held by opponent. 

Snatching or batting ball from opponent. 

Kicking or striking ball with fist. 

Touching a field line or ground beyond it. 

Passing the ball in any way but by a throw in air 
(no bouncing or rolling), the thrower on one or 
both feet, or jumping (not lying, sitting, or 
kneeling on ground). 

LINESMEN. — Two Linesmen are appointed by the 
home team in a match game, and approved by the 
Referee. 



Officials ^ 137 

Their duty is to judge of the fouls of players in 
stepping on or over field Unes, or touching these Hues 
or the ground beyond them with any part of the per- 
son or clothing. These they report to the Referee. 

One Linesman judges of but one half the field. He 
stands as indicated by the Referee, but usually moves 
with the shifting activity of the game so that he can 
look down the length of the field lines from a side line. 

TIMEKEEPER. — This official, appointed by the 
home team and approved by the Referee, is the sole 
judge of the length of halves. He informs the Referee 
at the close of each half, and that official signals for 
play to stop. See ^^ Score " for length of halves. 

In estimating time, the Timekeeper begins his reck- 
oning with the Referee's signal for play to start. He 
may deduct only such time for stoppages as the Ref- 
eree may authorize, time consumed in free throws not 
being deducted in estimating halves. 

An assistant Timekeeper may be appointed if de- 
sired. He will act under direction of the Timekeeper. 

SCORER. — One Scorer (and an Assistant Scorer, if 
desired) is appointed by the home team and approved 
by the Referee. 

Before a game begins the Scorer should ascertain 
from the Captain or Manager of each team the names 
of the players and their positions. 

His official record includes all goals scored, according 
to the decisions of the Referee, and for each player 
he should also designate fouls committed. (See score 
card for Basket Ball.) The score board is also in 
charge of the Scorer, or an assistant. 

From his record the Scorer assists the Referee in 



138 Basket Ball (Line Game) 

determining when players should be disqualified for 
rough play or interference (second offense) or for 
guarding or line fouls (four fouls in succession). 

OUTFIT. — The BALL is round, not less than 30 
nor more than 32 inches in circumference. It consists 
of a rubber bladder which is inserted in a leather cover 
and inflated. The opening in the cover is then laced 
together. The completed ball must weigh, according 
to official requirements, not less than 18 nor more than 
20 ounces. Basket balls range in price from $4.50 to 
$6. A good ball costs $5. 

The BASKETS OR GOALS are nets of cord fastened 
to metal rings 18 inches in diameter. These rings are 
attached to wooden backgrounds, or backstops, 6 
feet long horizontally and 4 feet high, the boards 
three quarters of an inch in thickness. 

The regulation height of baskets for adults is 10 
feet from the ground. 

Goals (baskets) cost $4 per pair, without the back- 
stop. 

For out-of-doors, the backboards and baskets may 
be attached to posts sunk in the ground. A pair of 
posts, backboards, and nets can be bought for $40. 

DRESS. — Rubber-soled, well-fitting, soft, leather 
shoes are well-nigh a necessity for the expert player. 
So-called suction shoes, the rubber soles of which have 
perforations which enable the player to obtain a firm 
purchase on the floor, cost $4 per pair. 

Men usually wear short, padded flannel trousers 
and a sleeveless woolen shirt. 

Women wear gymnasium suits, including short, 
Zouave trousers or knickerbockers. 



Bibliography: Glossary 139 

HISTORY. — The Kne game of basket ball was 
developed at Smith College by Mrs. Senda Berenson 
Abbott as a result of one season's trial of the regular 
game, which was invented by Dr. James Naismith 
at Springfield in 1892. It was in that same year that 
the modified or line game was formulated. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Official Handbooks 

Basket-hall Guide for Women. Spalding's Athletic Library 
(New York, American Sports Publishing Co.) 

The Game 

Athletic and Outdoor Sports for Women. Edited by Lucille E. 

Hill. (New York, The Macmillan Company.) 
Athletic Games for Women. By Gertrude Dudley and Frances 

A. Kellor. (New York, Henry Holt & Company.) 

GLOSSARY 

The glossary for the original game of basket ball appHes also to 
the line game. A few terms peculiar to this game are here given. 

Center Section. Zone to which the centers are restricted. 

Field Line. Zone of the two lines that divide the court 
into three zones. 

Guard Section. Zone to which the guards are restricted. 

Home Section. Zone to which the forwards and goal 
keepers are restricted. 

Juggle. To throw the ball up into the air and catch it 
again. 

Line Gajvie. Game of basket ball in which the court is 
divided by cross lines and the players are restricted to certain 
zones so outUned. 

Linesman. Official who judges whether or not the player 
has touched or stepped over a field line. 



FIELD HOCKEY 



FIELD HOCKEY 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION — Field hockey is 
played out of doors on a large, level field covered 
with turf, and marked with white lines. In the center 
of each end line a goal is erected consisting of upright 
posts, with a cross bar, and a net attached at the rear 
to catch the ball. 

The field is divided through the center by a line 
parallel to the two end or goal lines, and each half 
is defended by a team of ii players. The game is 
played with a small cricket ball made of leather, about 
the size of a baseball, and painted white. This ball 
is played entirely by a curved stick; it is never 
kicked, or played by the hand. A goal is scored each 
time a team puts its ball through the opponents' 
goal, with a shot made from within what is called the 
striking circle, an area marked in front of each goal. 
The game is played in two halves of thirty or thirty- 
five minutes each. 

The ball may not be played on by any attacking 
player who was between it and the opponent's goal 
when it was last hit, unless at least three of the op- 
ponents are nearer their own goal than this player. 
This rule about off-side play leads to certain players 
of a team, as forwards, or half backs, keeping in rank, 
or parallel with one another, as they advance up the 
field toward the opponents' goal, passing the ball from 
one to another. 

143 



144 Field Hockey 

In general form the game is almost identical with 
soccer football, though the ball; and the method of 
playing it, are radically different. 

The following detailed description is based on the 
official rules of the American Field Hockey Associa- 
tion. 

FIELD. — DIMENSIONS AND LINES. — Field hockey 
is played on a level, turf field. While this does not 
have to be as smooth as a tennis court, the fewer in- 
equalities in the surface, the pleasanter the game. 
The turf should have frequent cutting and rolling. 

The length of a hockey field is from 90 to 100 
yards; for schools the minimum may be 85 yards. 
The maximum width is 60 yards, and the minimum 
55 yards. 

This outline is marked in white, the longer lines 
being called side lines, and the connecting lines at 
the end, goal lines. Flags are placed at the corners. 

The field is divided into halves by a transverse 
line midway between goals, and is again marked off 
in each half with a transverse line 25 yards from the 
goal line. 

A cross is drawn in the exact center of the field, on 
the halfway line. 

A dotted line is usually marked parallel with the 
side lines and five yards within them. This is called 
the 5-yard line, and though not required by the 
official rules, it assists very much in carrying out the 
regulations of the game. 

The only other marking on the ground is that of 
the striking circle around each goal. 



Field 145 

Striking Circle . — In front of each goal is an area 
inclosed by a line, called the Striking Circle. To 
score, a ball going through the goal must have been 
hit from within this circle. 

The Striking Circle is made by drawing, 15 yards 
in front of each goal, a line 4 yards long, and parallel 
with the goal lines. Each end of this line is then 
joined to the goal line with a quarter circle, for which 
the goal post on that side is the center. 

GOALS. — In the center of each goal line is erected 
a goal made of posts 7 feet high, and not more than 
2 inches broad and 3 inches deep. These are placed 
4 yards (12 feet) apart (inside measurement), and are 
connected by a cross bar, rectangular in shape; 
neither cross bar nor uprights may extend beyond the 
point where they intersect. 

NET. — Each goal should be fitted with a net to 
catch the ball and assist in determining whether or 
not the goal has been made. Such a net is cubical 
in shape, not pyramidal, as in Lacrosse, Ice Hockey, 
etc., and is often made of wire netting. 

FLAGS. — The strategic points of the field are 
usually marked by a flag set outside of the lines. 
They are required at the four comers, and on either 
side of the center line. They must be one yard out- 
side of the lines, as must any other flags used, and 
must be on posts that are at least 4 feet high. 

TEAMS. — Field hockey is played by two teams 
of II players each. 

The particular number of players to be assigned to 
each position is not made compulsory by the rules, 
though the correct formation of a team is supposed 



146 Field Hockey 

to include 5 forwards, 3 half backs, 2 full backs, and 
a goal keeper. These positions, however, may be 
changed by the Captains, though this is not usual 
for match games. For practice games, it may be 
advisable at times to have three full backs and no 
goal keeper, one of the full backs guarding the goal 
whenever the ball is near it, the three full backs tak- 
ing turns in this. 

The line up of the players of each team at the open- 
ing of the game is as follows : 

Left Wing, Left Inside, Center Forward, Right Inside, Right Wing, 

Left Half Back, Centre Half Back, Right Half Back, 

Left Full Back, Right Full Back, 

Goal Keeper. 

The players take these positions whenever the ball 
is bullied-off in the center of the field. The center 
player bullies the ball from the middle of the field at 
the beginning of each half and after each goal scored. 
The other forwards at this time must be in position, 
ready to follow up the ball should it go into the 
opponents' territory. 

FORWARDS. — All five of the forwards constitute 
what is called the attack ; that is, they are the aggres- 
sive players of a team and it devolves upon them 
(center forward excepted) to carry the ball down to 
the opponents' goal and shoot the goal from within 
the striking circle. These players should keep as 
nearly as possible in even rank, — that is, parallel 
to one another, — so as to be able to give and receive 
passes from one another without infringing the rules 
for off-side play. In this they are closely followed 



Forwards ' 



Half Backs ; 



Full Backs 




-<: Goal Lines 50 or 60 Yards In Length - - ■ 

FIELD HOCKEY 
Diagram of field and position of teams at opening of game, 



147 



148 Field Hockey 

up and helped by their half backs, who feed the ball 
toward them whenever it gets nearer to their own goal. 
The forwards usually act as a defense ^only between 
the 25-yard lines. 

INSIDE RIGHT AND LEFT. — These players need to 
be very alert to receive the ball or to follow it up when 
it is bullied-off. Their form of play is often a dribble, 
but frequently consists in passes between themselves, 
or passes to the wings. 

RIGHT AND LEFT WINGS. — These players usually 
have most to do with taking the ball to the opponent's 
goal. Their place, except in exigencies, should be 
between the 5-yard line and the side line. Their 
form of play consists usually very much of dribbling, 
but they have to be quick and expert in taking and 
giving passes on the run. These players should 
keep the ball from going out of bounds, or '' in touch," 
as the English phrase has it. 

In playing down the field in an attack, the wings 
should keep parallel with the other forward players 
of their team until the 25-yard line is reached, when 
they should close into the circle and take their place 
within it, keeping well to the sides to intercept the 
ball when it is hit away from the goal by the defenders. 
In such a case they should immediately return the ball 
to their own inside or center players, who should also 
be within the striking circle ; or the wings may shoot 
a goal themselves should a good opportunity occur. 

The position of right wing is the easier of the two 
because of the rules forbidding left-hand play. This 
rule makes the left wing position very awkward. 
The ball may best be played toward the center by the 



Teams 149 

left wing by getting sKghtly in front of it and hitting 
it as it rolls, or by stopping and then hitting it. 

HALF BACKS. — In an attack, the main duty of the 
half backs is to feed the ball to their forwards, follow- 
ing them up the field to, or even within, the striking 
circle. They may pass the ball to their forwards or 
shoot a goal themselves. 

In defense play, the half backs should intercept the 
opposing forwards as they come toward them, and 
try to get the ball as they pass it from one to another. 
The half backs leave the defense immediately around 
the striking circle to the full backs, always dropping 
back when they get to the full backs' territory so as 
to be ready to receive the ball and pass it out to their 
own forwards. It may, however, be necessary at 
times for the half backs to take the place of the full 
backs, immediately outside the striking circle, should 
the latter have to go within the circle to help in de- 
fending the goal. 

FULL BACKS. — These are defense players stationed 
on the 2 5 -yard line. When the ball gets as far as the 
full backs, it is very near the goal and must be stopped, 
usually with the foot, before hitting, so as to avoid 
the added risk of running shots. It should be hit 
away with hard strokes that are purposeful and well 
aimed. This requires a cool head and good judgment. 

When the ball gets within the striking circle, the 
full backs should fall back within the circle to assist 
the goal keeper, remembering, as should all defending 
players, that a ball should be hit to one side and 
not simply sent farther out in front of the goal ; from 
the latter position it may more easily be sent through. 



ISO Field Hockey 

The full backs should never take part in an attack 
by their own team on the opponents' goal, though 
they may play well up to the center, and even over 
the center line. It is of the utmost importance that 
when their forwards and half backs are doing aggres- 
sive work in the - opponents' half of the field, they 
should be near the center line to ward off a sudden 
onset from the opponents. 

GOAL KEEPER. — It is needless to say that the 
goal keeper is one of the most important and hard- 
worked players in a team. The usual position for a 
goal keeper should be very slightly in front of the 
goal line, not between the posts or behind them. It 
is very seldom that a goal keeper should leave the 
goal and then only when he has a much better chance 
than the nearest opponent to hit the ball. It is 
usually advisable for a goal keeper to keep to the side 
of the goal from which a shot is coming. 

The goal keeper should be fearless to stop the ball 
with the foot or any part of the person. He is the 
only plaj^er on a team privileged to kick the ball, 
but may do this only within his striking circle, and 
not in playing a penalty bully. 

THE GAME. — CHOICE of goals. — The Cap- 
tains (usually the Captain of the home team) toss 
for choice of goals. 

Goals are changed for the second half of the game, 
each team defending the goal it previously attacked. 

BULLY-OFF. — The ball is put in play by what is 
called a bully-off. This is done by two players, one 
from each team, who stand with the ball between 
them ; each touches the ground with his stick on his 



152 Field Hockey 

own (right) side of the ball, and hits his opponent's 
stick above the ball, alternately, three times in suc- 
cession, after which each tries to hit the ball towards 
his opponent's territory. No other player may hit 
the ball until one of these players bulhdng-off has 
done so. 

The two center forwards are usually assigned the 
duty of bullying-off. They must stand with one 
foot on each side of the center line, squarely facing 
the side lines, each with his left side toward his op- 
ponent's goal. Every other player of a team must 
be nearer his own goal than the ball is; i.e., between 
the ball and his own goal. It is wise for the players 
nearest the center to close in toward him for the 
bully-off. 

The ball is thus put in play with a bully at the 
center of the field at the beginning of each half and 
after each goal scored ; also after it has gone over the 
goal lines outside the goal. A bully is given as a 
penalty for certain fouls on the spot where the foul 
occurred, as described under " Fouls." After an 
accident, the ball is put in play by a bully at the 
point where it was when the accident occurred, the 
exact spot to be decided by the Umpire. 

For failure to observe any of the rules connected 
with it, a bully must be repeated. There is no other 
penalty for such failure. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS AND RULES OF PLAY. — 
Field hockey is essentially a game of the ball; that 
is, all methods of advancing or intercepting the ball 
are confined to direct play on the ball itself, no tack- 
ling or interference with players being permissible. 



Rules, for Players 153 

Rules are very definite about handling the sticks, 
methods between players, and modes of playing the 
ball. 

RULES FOR THE STICK. — The stick is almost in- 
variably held in both hands for a stroke, both being 
close together at the top, the left hand grasping the 
upper end. 

The sticks are made with the left-hand side of the 
blade flat, and the opposite side rounded. All strokes 
must be made toward the left, it befiig a foul to hit 
the ball toward the right, or with the rounded back 
of the stick, or in any way to make a left-handed 
play. 

Rules relating to the stick may be summarized as 
follows : No part of a stick may be raised above the 
shoulder during any part of a hit, either at the begin- 
ning or end of the stroke. For this the Umpire or 
Captain should call '' Sticks ! '' at once, and enforce 
the penalty of a free hit for the opposing team from 
the point where the breach occurred, if outside the 
striking circle. 

It is not permissible to hit an opponent's stick as 
in the checking of ice hockey. 

There may be no play with the back of the stick, 
either for hitting or stopping the ball. All play must 
be from the flat side of the stick. 

No player without a stick in hand may interfere in 
the game in any way. 

RULES FOR PLAYERS. — The rules regarding players 
may be summarized as follows : No personal inter- 
ference is allowed, either kicking, collaring, shinning, 
tripping, charging, or body-checking. 



154 FieM Hockey 

It is not allowable to obstruct an opponent by get- 
ting between him and the ball. 

It is a foul to cross an opponent from the left, un- 
less in so doing the ball be touched before the opponent 
touches it. 

OFFSIDE PLAY is one of the most important points 
for players to understand. '' Offside " refers to the 
position of a player as related to the ball (when it is 
hit), and his opponents and their goal. 

He is offside, and may not play on the ball, if he 
be between the opponent's goal and the ball when 
it is hit, unless at least three of the opponents are 
nearer their own goal line than himself. This offside 
position would give him an unfair advantage in shoot- 
ing their goal. If he be offside when the ball is hit, he 
may not touch the ball, nor approach it, nor stay 
within 5 yards of it, nor may he in any way interfere 
with any other player, until the ball has been hit by 
a player of the opposite side. It will be noticed that 
this refers only to a ball hit by a player's own team 
mate. He is not offside when in front of a ball hit 
by one of his opponents. He is not offside in his own 
half of the field, nor may he be penalized for merely 
standing in an offside position. It is playing in that 
position that constitutes an infringement of rules. 

Offside play is penalized by granting to the op- 
ponents a free hit from the place where the play 
occurred, whether this were inside or outside the circle. 

METHODS OF PLAYING THE BALL. — This is always 
rolled, not purposely lofted, and never kicked by any 
player except the goal keeper, who may so keep it 
away from the goal. 



Roll-In 155 

The ball may be stopped (but not otherwise played) 
by any part of the person, or apparel ; it may even 
be caught in the hand, but must be dropped at once, 
perpendicularly {i,e,^ not thrown to a distance). If 
stopped by the foot, the latter must be taken away at 
once. The ball may not be picked up, thrown, 
carried, or kept (except by the goal keeper within the 
striking circle), or knocked back and forth in any way, 
except with the stick. It is considered carrying the 
ball to change it from the right hand to the left 
when it is caught in the hand. 

ROLL-IN. — After being '' in touch '' (going out of 
bounds over the side Unes), the ball is put in play 
by what is called a roll-in. It must be entirely over 
the line to be considered out of bounds. 

For the roll-in, a player of the opposing side to the 
one that sent it out (usually a wing player) rolls the 
ball in by hand. It must be rolled along the ground, 
not thrown or bounced, and from the point at which 
it crossed the hne ; it may be sent in any direction. 
A player who rolls in the ball must stand with both 
feet and stick beyond the side hne and may not 
touch the ball again until it has been touched or hit 
by some other player. 

For a roll-in no other player may stand within 5 
yards of the side hne. It is to assist in the enforce- 
ment of this rule that the 5 -yard dotted hne is drawn 
on the grounds. 

Should the ball go out of bounds behind the goal 
line, it is treated as a foul, whether such a play is 
made willfully or accidentally. The penalties for the 
defending or attacking side under these circum- 



156 Field Hockey 

stances are given under '' Fouls '' and consist either 
in a bully, a corner hit, or a penalty corner hit. 

The method for putting the ball in play for each of 
the penalties for fouls — free hit (from field), corner 
(free hit), penalty corner hit, and penalty bully — are 
described under ^' Fouls." 

ADVANCING THE BALL is done by dribbling and 
passing. 

In dribbling, one player runs with the ball, carrying 
it along with him by a series of light strokes that do 
not send it out of reach. Dribbling becomes danger- 
ous when an enemy is near, who might intercept the 
ball; under such circumstances a pass to a team- 
mate is in order. 

Passing consists in sending the ball from one team- 
mate to another. It is well for a player to form the 
habit of looking over the right shoulder for a ball 
coming up from the rear, playing as much as possible 
with his left side toward the opponents' goal. Short 
passes are far more frequent, and safer, than long 
ones. A player may receive and return a pass on the 
run, without stopping the ball; or he may stop the 
ball (as with stick or foot) and then hit it. For 
passing, to avoid infringing the rule for offside 
play, players should be as nearly as possible in a 
Une, side by side, when going toward an opponents' 
goal. 

INTERCEPTING THE BALL. — A ball being played 
between opponents may be intercepted in a pass. 
No personal interference with an opponent is permis- 
sible; that is, no charging, tripping, shinning, or 
body-checking of any kind. 



Penalties for Fouls 157 

PENALTIES FOR FOULS. — The fouls in field 
hockey are not more numerous nor varied than in 
many other games, but appear rather complicated 
because the penalties vary for the same foul, accord- 
ing to whether it is committed within or without the 
striking circle, or is made by the attacking or defend- 
ing side. These variations in the kinds and varieties 
of penalties arise primarily from the fact that any 
ball, to score a goal, must have been hit from within 
the striking circle by a player of the attacking side ; 
hence, if the attacking side offend within the striking 
circle, the defense is usually allowed a free hit as a 
means of keeping the ball away from their own goal. 
On the other hand, if a foul be committed by the 
defense within their own striking circle, the attacking 
side is allowed either a bully, a corner, or a penalty 
corner which gives them a possibihty of making a 
goal either directly from one shot, or indirectly 
through two players (corner hit) . The fouls and their 
penalties under various circumstances are appended 
in a classified Hst. 

Penalties for fouls are, briefly stated,^ 

{a) A free hit ^ (anywhere on the grounds where 
offense occurred ; no other player within 5 yards) . 

{h) Penalty bully ^ (mainly for offenses within the 
striking circle. A bully by offender and opponent, 
all other players to be beyond the 25-yards Une). 

(c) Corner hit ^ (a hit made from opponents' 
side line or goal line — within 3 yards of corner flag, — 
defending team to be behind their own goal Une, and 
attacking team beyond the striking circle). 

^ See fuller explanation immediately following. 



158 Field Hockey 

{d) Penalty corner ^ (A hit made from opponents' 
goal Kne — but at least lo yards from nearest goal 
post — no other player within 5 yards of the striker ; 
defending team behind their own goal line ; attacking 
team outside the striking circle) . 

These penalties for fouls may be elaborated as 
follows : 

A FREE HIT is one accorded an opponent on a spot 
where a foul has occurred and is made while no other 
player than the striker is within 5 yards of the spot 
where the hit is made. The hit must be a clean 
stroke and not a '^ scoop.'' The striker may not 
touch the ball again until another player of either his 
own or the opposing team has touched or hit it. 
Should a striker miss a ball on a free hit, he may re- 
peat the stroke. 

The penalties for infringing any of these rules for 
a free hit are given in the classified list that follows. 

PENALTY BULLY. — A penalty bully is awarded for 
certain fouls, mainly those which are intentionally 
committed, or which prevent a goal that would other- 
wise have been made, such fouls being committed 
within the striking circle by the defending team. The 
bully takes place between a player of each side on the 
spot where the foul occurred, and all other players of 
both teams must be beyond the nearer 25-yards line. 

The object of the penalty bully is to give the 
offended team, which in this case is the attacking team, 
an opportunity to shoot a goal on a bully, or to place 
the ball advantageously for this. The offended team 
may choose any one of its players to play this bully. 

^ See fuller explanation immediately following. 



Penalty Shots 159 

If the player of the attacking team sends the ball 
between the goal posts, it scores a goal for his team. 
If he sends it wholly over the goal line outside the goal 
posts, or either of the two players sends it outside the 
striking circle, the penalty bully is completed, and the 
game is started over again by a bully made regularly 
from the center of the nearer 2 5 -yards line. 

If, in a penalty bully, the offending player sends 
the ball over the goal line (but not between the goal 
posts) the bully shall be repeated ; if the offending 
player sends the ball over the line between the goal 
posts, the attacking team is awarded a penalty goal 
(scores one point). 

Any breach of rules made during a penalty bully 
incurs penalties that differ according to the player 
offending. 

If committed by the original offender (of the de- 
fending team) the attacking team is given a penalty 
goal. 

If committed by the player of the attacking team, 
the defending team is allowed a free hit. 

If committed simultaneously by both players, the 
bully is repeated. 

CORNER (also called a corner hit or penalty corner). 
This is awarded, when, in the Umpire's opinion, a ball 
has glanced off, or in some other way been inten- 
tionally put behind the goal Une by a defending 
player. This corner hit is a free hit, taken from the 
side or goal Hne within 3 yards of the nearest corner 
flag. A corner hit differs from a free hit in the point 
at which the ball is placed and the position of other 
players. All players of the defending team must be 



i6o Field Hockey 

behind their goal line and all players of the attacking 
side outside the striking circle. The players all line 
up at about equal distances on these lines. Neither 
feet nor sticks may be within these limits, and no 
player may be within 5 yards of the striker. 

No goal may be scored from a corner hit until the 
ball has been stopped (not necessarily motionless) by 
one of the attacking side, or shall have touched the 
person or stick of a player of the defending side before 
the last stroke that sent it through. 

A player making a corner hit may not play again 
until another player has played on the ball. 

Should the player making a corner hit miss the ball, 
he may hit again, unless he has broken some rule 
about sticks. 

Should any player of the attacking team shoot for 
goal after a corner hit has been made, without the 
balFs first having been stopped (not necessarily mo- 
tionless), the defending team may have a free hit. 

PENALTY CORNER. — This is a free hit made from 
any point on the opponents' goal line, except within 
10 yards of the nearest goal post. The penalty corner 
hit differs from the corner hit only in being limited 
to the goal line. The same rules apply as follows : 

All players of the defending team (including feet 
and sticks) must be behind their own goal line, and 
all players of the attacking team similarly outside the 
striking circle. No player may be within 5 yards of 
the striker. 

A goal may not be scored from such a hit until the 
ball has either been stopped (not necessarily motion- 
less) or touched by one of the defending side. 



Classified Fouls and Penalties i6i 

The player making the hit may not play on the ball 
again until another player has done so. 

Should the first strike miss the ball in a penalty 
corner hit, the player may hit again. 

For any infringement of rules in a penalty corner 
hit, a free hit is awarded to the opposing team. 

PENALTY GOAL. — This is awarded for a breach of 
rules in making a penalty bully. It consists simply 
in the opposing side's being allowed one point on their 
score. 

CLASSIFIED FOULS AND PENALTIES 

FOULS RELATING TO PLAYERS 



Foul 



Outside of Cir- 
cle BY EITHER 

Side 



Inside Circle 

BY Attacking 

Side 



Inside Circle 
BY Defense 



Personal Interfer- 
ence 

Tripping, 
shinning, charg- 
ing, collaring, 
shoving, body- 
checking, strik- 
ing or hooking 
with stick. 
Obstructing play- 
er. Running be- 
tween player and 
ball ; crossing him 
from left unless 
touch ball before 
touching him. 

Of side play 



Rough play 



Opponents 
awarded free 
hit from spot 
where foul 
occurred. 



Free hit 
from spot 
where foid 
occurred. 



Opponents 
awarded free 
hit from spot 
where foul 
occurred. 



Free hit 
from spot 
where foul 
occurred. 



Opponents 
awarded pen- 
alty corner. If 
intentional, or 
intercepting a 
goal shot, then 
penalty bully 



Free hit from 
spot where foul 
occurred. 

Suspended at discretion of Umpire, with 
or without preliminary warning. 



l62 



Field Hockey 



MANNER OF PLAYING BALL. 



Foul 



Propelling in 
any way but by 
stick (except 
kick by goal 
keeper ; no kick- 
ing by other 
players allowed) . 

To catch ball 
with hand and 
not drop it at 
once. 

To carry ball, 
even from left to 
right hand. 

To kneel, sit, 
or stand on ball. 



Roll-in 



Outside of 

Circle by 

Either Team 



Free hit 
by other 
side from 
spot where 
offense oc- 
curred 



Inside Circle by 
Attack 



Free hit by 
defending 
team from 
spot where 
occurred. 



Inside Circle by 
Defense 



Penalty comer. 
If intentional, or 
preventing a goal 
from being made, 
then a penalty 
bully from spot 
where occurred. 



When opposing player to one who makes 
roll-in is within 5 -yard line, repeat the roll- 
in. If player who rolls in breaks the rules, 
the roll-in is given to the opponents. 



Ball sent behind Goal Line 
By a player of attacking team. 



Unintentionally by, or glances 
off, stick or person of defender, 
horn, farther than 2 5 -yard line. 

Unintentionally by, or glances 
from, person or stick of defen- 
der, nearer than 2 5 -yard line. 

Intentionally by defending 
team. 



Penalty 

Bully from 25-yards line, at 
right angles to goal line at 
point where ball went out. 

Bully from 25-yards line, at 
right angles to goal line at 
point where ball went out. 

Corner hit awarded to at- 
tacking team. 

Penalty corner hit awarded 
to attacking team. 



Classified Fouls 



163 



USE OF STICKS 



Foul 


. Outside of 
Circle by 
Either Team 


Inside Circle by 
Attack 


Ins]!de Circle by 
Defense 


To interfere in 


Free hit 


Free hit by 


Penalty corner. 


the game with- 


by other 


defending 


If intentional, or 


out a stick in 


side from 


team from 


preventing a goal 


hand. 


spot where 


spot where 


from being made, 




offense oc- 


occurred. 


then a penalty 




curred. 




bully from spot 
where occurred. 


^^ Sticks '' — (to 








raise stick above 


)) 


j> 


Penalty corner. 


shoulder) . 








To hit or stop 






Penalty corner. 


with back of 






If intentional, or 


stick. 


5) 


» 


preventing a goal 
from being made, 
then a penalty 
bully from spot 
where occurred. 


To strike at 








sticks (check- 








ing). 


V 


)? 


>) 


To hook sticks. 


Free hit 


Free hit by 


Penalty corner. 




by other 


defending 


If intentional, or 




side from 


team from 


preventing a goal 




spot where 


spot where 


from being made, 




offense oc- 


occured. 


then a penalty 




curred 




bully from spot 
where occurred. 


To hook person 


J? 


>j 


J) 


of opponent. 









164 Field Hockey 

FOULS MADE IN PENALTY SHOTS 



Breaking Rules 


Outside of 


Inside Circle by 


Inside Circle by 


for Free Hit 


Either Side 


Attack 


Defense 


(a) Any player 


Hit to be 


Hit to be 


Hit to be 


within 5 yards. 


taken again. 


taken again. 


taken again. 


(b) If striker 


Free hit by 


Penalty 


Penalty 


plays on ball be- 


team oppos- 


corner. 


corner. 


fore it is hit by 


ing the of- 






another player. 


fender. 






(c) For ''scoop- 


Free hit by 






ing '' ball. 


one of oppos- 
ing team. 


j> 


>> 


Breaking rules 




for penalty bully 




(a) By offender. 


Penalty goal awarded to attacking team. 


(b) By player 


Free hit awarded to defending team. 


taking bully for 




attacking team. 




(c) Simultane- 


Bully to be repeated. 


ously by both 




players. 




Breaking rules 




for corner hit 


Free hit awarded to offended team. 


Breaking rules 




for penalty corner 


Free hit awarded to offended team. 



SCORE. — One point is scored for a team for each 
ball put through the opponents' goal from the front, 
by a hit made by the attacking side within the strik- 



Score: Match Games 165 

ing circle. A glance-off from the stick scores the 
same as a shot, if the ball goes through the goal. To 
score a goal a ball must go entirely over the line. 

Should a goal post be displaced, the Umpire may 
award a goal if in his judgment the ball passed within 
what would have been the goal boundaries. 

The Umpire decides , calls, and records all goals 
scored. 

A penalty goal, accorded for an opponent's breach 
of rules, scores the same as a goal hit. 

The ball is bullied-off at the center of the field after 
each goal is scored and at the beginning of the second 
half. 

The game is played in two halves of 35 minutes 
each (one hour and ten minutes of playing time), 
with a rest between. For schools and colleges games 
are allowed in 30-minute halves, but any match games 
of this length must be recorded as '^ 60-minute 
matches." 

The time is estimated by the Umpire . In doing 
this he deducts any time in which the play is sus- 
pended for accidents to a player, but not for the balFs 
being out of bounds. 

Teams change places (goals) after the first half. 
After an accident , the ball is started again with a 
bully-off from a spot selected by the Umpire in the half 
of the ground occupied by the team of the injured 
player. 

MATCH GAMES. — For match games it is customary 
for the Captain of the home team to toss for choice of 
goals. The home team should furnish the balls, a 
new ball being put in play for the second half. 



1 66 Field Hockey 

OFFICIALS. — Two Umpires are usually pro- 
vided, one by each team, and are the only officials. 
It is permissible, however, to conduct the game with 
one Umpire and two Linesmen. Each team elects 
a Captain. 

Where no Umpires appear or are appointed, the 
Captains should fill these positions, making all deci- 
sions in the game. 

UMPIRES. — It is usual for each club to select its 
own Umpire. 

Each Umpire has jurisdiction over one half the field 
(from transverse center line to goal) and for all of one 
side line (from goal line to goal line), but this does 
not include corner hits. 

Umpires retain their position on the field through- 
out the game, not crossing over at half time when the 
teams change goals. 

The Umpires are entirely independent of each other, 
each being a supreme authority in his own half of the 
field. 

The duties of the Umpire consist in 

(a) Inspecting the grounds, goals, and flags as to 
lines and distances; the dress, shoes, sticks, and 
general equipment of the players, before a game, to 
see that all of these points conform to the rules. 

(b) Placing the ball and blowing the whistle for all 
starting and stopping of play, including the beginning 
of each half after each goal is scored and at any other 
times when this is necessary through the game. 

The Umpire decides at what point the ball should 
be bullied, after play has been suspended for rough 
play or accidents, or after any foul ; also after going 



Officials 167 

out of bounds, at what point it should be rolled in 
and by which team. 

A ball hitting an Umpire is not dead and not out 
of play. 

(c) Acting as timekeeper, noting when a half be- 
gins, deducting all time lost by accidents (not for fouls 
or penalties) and on this basis deciding when the half 
ends. The Umpire should blow his whistle at the 
beginning and close of halves. A half should end on 
time, except if it interrupts a penalty bully, for which 
time allowance should be made until the bully is 
completed or a goal scored. 

In estimating time, the Umpire should remember 
that in this game the time consumed for a ball out of 
bounds is not deducted from the playing time ; play 
does not stop for a foul until the Umpire's decision is 
given, and no time is deducted for any fouls, penalties, 
or discussion relating thereto. 

The ball is in play from the time the Umpire blows 
his whistle for play to begin until he blows it again 
for play to stop. Play should cease only at half time 
and for accidents, not for fouls and their penalties. 
Under these rules also an Umpire should not enforce 
any penalty, if by so doing an advantage would be 
given to the offending side. 

(d) The Umpire is responsible for accurate knowl - 
edge of all fouls and must be prepared to give a deci- 
sion on these and all other points promptly, without 
waiting for appeal. 

For rough play the Umpire may suspend a player 
from the game, using his discretion about a prelimi- 
nary warning before doing this. 



1 68 Field Hockey 

(e) The Umpire decides whenever a goal is made, 
announces it, and keeps the score. 

(/) Position. — In order to decide all points con- 
nected with the manner of playing the ball, and off- 
side play, the Umpire should keep in line with the ball 
when it is in his territory. 

An Umpire may do no coaching during a game. 

LINESMEN. — Where these are appointed, their 
duties consist in watching certain lines — one side and 
end — to note when ball or players are within, on, or 
over the line ; where the ball should be rolled in after 
going out of bounds, and by which team this should be 
done. A Linesman may not coach during a game. 

CAPTAINS. — The two Captains of a team toss for 
choice of goals at the beginning of a game. It is cus- 
tomary for the Captain of the home team to do this. 

The Captains should be chiefly instrumental in 
selecting the Umpire for their respective teams. 
Where no Umpires are appointed from outside the 
teams, the Captains may serve as Umpires, each for 
his own team, or assign another member of the team 
to this duty. 

Each Captain indicates his own goal keeper. 

OUTFIT. — GOALS. — Detail specifications are 
given in description of field. For field hockey, in- 
cluding uprights, cross bar and galvanized wire 
netting may be had complete for $35 per pair. Up- 
rights and cross bar without the netting may be had 
at $15 per set. 

FLAGS. — Boundary flags may be had at 50 cents 
each and staffs for them, seven feet high, at 50 cents 
each. 



Outfit 169 

STICKS for field hockey are made of wood, in whole or 
in part. No sharp edges or metal fittings are allowed. 
The best sticks are usually made with rattan cane 
handles, wound with tape or cord Hke a whip handle, 
attached to a head or blade made of ash. A hockey 
stick may be of any length, but must not weigh more 
than 28 ounces complete. The handle is rounded, but 
the head, or blade, is fiattenec out and curved. Only 
one side of this, however, may be perfectly flat, and 
that must be the left-hand side as the stick is held with 
the blade curving away from one. This head or blade 
must have a rounded end — no sharp corners or points. 

It is permissible to place a rubber ring on the stick 
where the handle and blade join to prevent other sticks 
from sHding up to the hand. This ring must not exceed 
four inches in external diameter. Both the rubber 
ring, and the whipping or binding of the handle, are 
included in the weight. The entire sticks must be of 
a size to permit its passing through a two-inch ring. 

Good hockey sticks cost from Si to S2.50 each. 

RUBBER-RING FINGER PROTECTORS to sHp on 
hockey sticks may be had at 50 cents each. 

BALL. — The official specifications call for a cricket 
ball painted white or covered with white leather. A 
cricket ball is of the same size as a baseball ; that is, 
9 to gj inches in circumference, but is one-half ounce 
heavier in weight, being from 5§ to 5! ounces. 

Official balls cost from*$i to $2.75 each; practice 
balls 50 cents each. 

GLOVES made to give freedom to the hand, but with 
fingers of rubber to protect from accidents with the 
stick, cost $2.50 per pair. 



170 Field Hockey 

SHOES. — No metal spikes or projecting nails are 
permissible on shoes used in field hockey. It is 
permissible, however, to use rubber heels, or small 
rubber disks, which may be had at five cents each 
and are attachable to any shoes. They prevent 
slipping. 

SHIN GUARDS may be had for $i per pair. These 
should be worn by all players. 

DRESS FOR WOMEN. — Hats having hard brims, 
or hatpins, are prohibited by the rules. The regula- 
tions specify that skirts shall be 8 inches from the 
ground all around. 

HISTORY. — In its primitive form field hockey 
is one of the oldest ball games in the world. Records 
of it are known as far back as 1330. In the Copen- 
hagen National Museum is an altar pot showing, in 
the decoration, two players bullying with a ball. 
An engraving of this is given in the yearbook of the 
Danish Hockey Association. The name is thought 
to have been derived, like that of Lacrosse, from the 
name given to the hooked stick used in the game. 
In the case of Hockey the word is thought to be of 
old French origin, derived from the word Ho quel, 
meaning a shepherd's crook. 

The modern development of the game is dis- 
tinctively English, the growth of its popularity in 
England being almost unprecedented in the history 
of modern team games. No attempt to formulate 
rules was made prior to 1875, at which date an Asso- 
ciation was formed of hockey clubs near London, and 
a few rules formulated, which formed the basis of the 
later development of the game. This Association 



History 171 

died, and was succeeded, in 1883, by the Wimbledon 
Club ; but the highest development of the modern 
game did not take place until the formation of the 
EngHsh Hockey Association in 1886. From this 
grew other Hockey Associations in Great Britain and 
all her colonies, in France, Germany, Holland, Bel- 
gium, Denmark, Egypt, India, and America. In 
the United States and Canada, an International 
Hockey Board, presumably originating in England, 
was formed in 1907. International matches have 
become a regular feature. These were first played 
between England and Ireland in 1894. Since then 
such matches have been played between England, 
Scotland, Germany, France, and Belgium. Oxford and 
Cambridge have had annual matches since 1890. In 
1910 there were 700 Hockey Clubs in Great Britain, 
exclusive of 60 or 70 regimental and university clubs, 
and those for pubHc school boys and girls. The game 
has become, perhaps, the most popular outdoor game 
for women in England. The first Women's Hockey 
Club was formed there in 1886, and the various clubs 
combined under the All England Women's Hockey 
Association in 1895. 

One of the most distinguishing features of the 
EngHsh play, and probably the large secret of its popu- 
larity, has been the effort to keep it a purely amateur 
game, by prohibiting all matches for trophies. 

The game was introduced in the United States in 
1901, by Miss Constance M, K. Applebee, who in 
that year started it in several of the leading Women's 
Colleges (Vassar, Bryn Mawr, and Smith) and in the 
Harvard Summer School of Physical Training. 



172 Field Hockey 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

On iciAL Handbooks 

Field Hockey. (Compiled by Constance M. K. Applebee.) 
(New York, Spalding's Athletic Library.) Official Publi- 
cation of the American Field Hockey Association. 

Rules of the Game of Hockey (English). Issued under the 
authority of the International Hockey Board. (London, 
England, Hoiiace Cox, Publisher.) 

Authorized Rules of the Game of Hockey and of the All-England 
W amends Hockey Association. (London, C. North, Pub- 
lisher.) 

The Game 

Hockey for Men and Women. By H. L. Bourke. (London, 

British Sports Pubhshing Co., 1907.) 
Hockey. By Frank S. Creswell. (London, Bell, 1909.) 
Athletic Games for Women. By Gertrude Dudley and Frances 

A. Kellor. (New York, Henry Holt and Company.) 
Hockey. By. E. H. Green and E. E. White. (London, E. 

Nash, 1912.) 
Athletics and Outdoor Sports for Women. By Lucile Eaton 

Hill. (New York, The MacmiUan Company.) 
Hints on Hockey. (London, W. Blackwood, 1907.) 
Encyclopedia of Sport. Edited by the Earl of Suffolk and 

Berkshire. (Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott and Company; 

London, Heinemann.) 
Hockey as a Game for Women. By Frank C. Tompkins. (New 

York, Longmans, Green and Co., 1904.) 
Complete Hockey Player. By E. E. White. (Philadelphia, 

G. W. Jacobs and Co. ; London, Methuen, 1909.) 

GLOSSARY 

Attack. Name given to the group of five forward players on 
a team, most of whom lead the attack on the opponent's 
goal. 



Glossary 173 

Bully; Bully-off. The procedure by which the ball is 
put in play. 

Corner; Corner-hit. A free (unimpeded) hit awarded to 
one team as penalty to the opponents for a foul com- 
mitted by one of their number. It is confined to a certain 
area and made according to prescribed rules. 

Defense. The full backs and goal keeper of a team are spoken 
of as the defense, as their most important duty is to de- 
fend the goal. 

Dribbling. Sending the ball along by a series of short strokes 
that keep it in motion; but close to the player. 

Foul. A misplay or breach of rules. 

Free-hit. A play free from interference by opponents. This 
is awarded to a team under prescribed conditions, as a 
penalty to the opponents for having infringed certain 
rules. 

Offside. A player is ^^ offside/' and may not play on the ball, 
when he is between the ball and the opponent's goal, and 
less than three of the opponents are nearer their own goal 
than he. 

Passing. The act of sending the ball from one player to an- 
other of the same team. 

Penalty bully. A bully awarded to an attacking team, 
for a foul committed within the striking circle by a defend- 
ing team. 

Penalty corner. A hit, free from interference, made from 
within prescribed limits. The penalty corner hit is 
awarded an attacking team for certain fouls by a defend- 
ing team. 

Penalty goal. A score of one point (the same as for making 
a goal), awarded to a team for certain breach of rules by 
the opponents. 

Roll-in. The particular method of putting the ball in play 
after it has gone out of bounds beyond the side lines; 
or the act of so putting it in play. 

"Scoop.'' A term applied to a certain way of striking a ball, 
so that it is lofted. Under some circumstances this is 
permissible. 



174 Field Hockey 

Sticks. The implements with which alone the ball may be 
played. The call of '^Sticks ! '' is used to indicate the foul 
of lifting the stick above the shoulder at either the begin- 
ning or end of a stroke. 

Striking circle. A prescribed area outlined in front of the 
goal. 

Undercut. A method of hitting the ball. 

Wings. Two of the forward players, called Right Wing and 
Left Wing. 



FOOTBALL 



FOOTBALL 

DIFFERENT GAMES. — Four distinct forms of 
football are in general use. In America, what is called 
Intercollegiate football is the most popular game, 
though the English Association, or Soccer football is 
rapidly growing in favor. In England Rugby football 
is the most famous game of this type, and in Ireland 
a GaeUc football is played. 

The Enghsh Rugby game is quite similar to the 
American Intercollegiate, but one important rule 
changes the entire tone and aspect of the game. In 
Rugby no player is allowed in front of the man carry- 
ing the ball; in other words, there is no '' on side " 
play, which practically does away with the inter- 
ference that results in the mass play of the American 
game. It might be said that Rugby is more a game 
of the ball, and the American Intercollegiate game 
more one of the players. The Enghsh Association 
football, often called in America Soccer, is more truly 
deserving of the name of football than either of the 
above-mentioned games, as in it the ball is advanced 
only by kicking. There are other differences between 
the games. 



177 



FOOTBALL (INTERCOLLEGIATE) 



FOOTBALL (INTERCOLLEGMTE) 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — The American 
game of Intercollegiate football is played by two 
opposing teams, mmibering ii players each (22 in all) 
who start the game and each quarter thereafter, fac- 
ing each other in scrimmage formation from opposite 
halves of a large rectangular field. At the far end of 
each hah of the field is a goal made of upright posts 
supporting a cross bar. The ball is prolate spheroid 
in shape, commonly called the oval or Rugby ball. 

The object of the game is for a team to advance 
the ball beyond the goal at the rear of the opponents' 
half of the field. There are two ways of doing this : 
the ball may be kicked over the goal above the cross 
bar between the two upright posts, which is called 
'' kicking a goal,'' or it may be carried over the rear 
boundary or goal line in the hands of a player of the 
opposing team and there touched to the ground, called 
a " touchdown." After making a touchdown a team 
has a free (unimpeded) try at goal with a kick, made 
from either the point of the touchdown, or after punt- 
ing the ball back into the field (a punt-out). Such a 
goal from touchdown scores i point. A goal kicked 
from the field in regular play scores 3 points for the 
team making the play ; a touchdown scores 6 points 
for the team achieving it. To prevent so high a score 



1 82 Football (Intercollegiate) 

by the opposing team, a play called a ^^ safety " is often 
made by a defending team. A safety consists in a 
player of the defending team kicking, carrying, or pass- 
ing a ball back over his own goal line into the field to 
be there touched-down by some other player of his 
team. Such a play scores 2 points against the team 
making it — that is, the opponents score 2 points on 
a safety made by the opposite team. It is, obviously, 
often to the advantage of a team to make a safety 
even though it scores for the opponents, as it pre- 
vents the latter making a higher score through a touch- 
down. 

The ball is usually advanced but short distances in 
each attempt, the team possessing the ball seeking to 
touch it to the ground in the hands of one of its players 
at each advance. After such a '' down " a ball is 
out of play until put formally in play again with a 
scrimmage. 

In a scrimmage the opposing teams line up opposite 
each other, the seven rushers, or forwards, on a line, 
and the backs in formation behind them. The ball 
is then put in play by the snapper-back, or center 
rusher, who snaps it back with his hands to the 
quarter back, who is behind him, who in turn usually 
passes it to one of the half backs, or to the full back, 
either for a run or a kick. 

A kicked ball may be allowed to fall to the ground by 
the receivers, in which case any player of the receiving 
team may fall upon it and thus gain possession of it ; 
or the kicked ball may be caught by one of the receiv- 
ing team with what is called a fair catch; that is, 
the opponent may raise an arm above his head as a 



General Description 183 

signal that he is going to make a fair catch, in which 
case he may not be interfered with. 

A team must advance a ball at least 10 yards 
in four attempts (downs), or the ball goes^ to the 
opponents. The three such plays that follow the first 
down are num-bered consecutively, second, third, and 
fourth downs. Should a team achieve the required 
distance in its fourth or any earlier down, the next play 
becomes the first down in a new series. 

The opponents try to prevent the advance of the 
ball and the dow^n. This is very often done by tack- 
ling the runner who is carrying it. Only the five 
middle men in the rush line of the defending team may 
tackle a runner below^ the knees ; all other players 
must tackle at other parts of the body, such as the 
shoulder or thigh. To protect him from tackling, 
a player running with the ball is usually accompanied 
by other players of his team who run with him to ward 
off the opponents and are called the interference. 
These players are often disposed in regular formations. 

To a spectator, the game is a series of line-ups for a 
kick-off or scrimmage, with the teams in formal ar- 
rangement opposite each other. The quarter back of 
the team which has possession of the ball then often 
shouts a series of numbers, letters, or other words which 
are unintelligible to any but his team and serve as blind 
signals to his players for their next play ; meaning, 
for instance, ''Play through left guard''; or ''Run 
around your own left end, your left tackle and left 
end, pushing the opposing right tackle toward the 
center, your left half back and full back forming an 
interference,'' etc. Having heard the signals, all 



1 84 Football (Intercollegiate) 

of the players on the rush hne, and those at the rear, 
crouch, ready to spring when the ball shall be put in 
play. These line-ups are moments of suspense, 
followed by an exciting rush with the ball. These 
rush moments often end with the players of both teams 
piled in a mass ; and one of the most intense moments 
of a ball game is the disclosure, when this pile of 
players breaks up, of which team is in possession of 
the ball, i.e., whether or not the ball has been lost in a 
fumble, or what distance it has been advanced. 
Such a mass play for a touchdown over a goal line 
is another of the crucial moments in which the spec- 
tators, anxious to see if a scoring play has been made, 
are apt to rise to their feet, with a roar of groans and 
cheers. 

Other moments of great intensity are when the ball 
is advanced a considerable distance by a sensational 
run or kick, when a goal is made, or a safety success- 
fully played. 

The advance of the ball is usually plainly indicated 
by two poles, connected by a ten-yard chain, which 
are moved along a side line as the ball moves backward 
or forward, as a means of aiding officials in judging 
distances. 

A spectator, to understand the game, should be 
familiar with other rules, such as those governing 
'' off side " and " on side " play ; the different kinds 
of kicks — drop kick, place kick, or punting — and 
when these kicks are permissible; when the ball is 
out of play ; the official position and duties of the 
different players, as half back, quarter back, etc. 
Some knowledge of the talents and previous achieve- 



General Description 185 

ments of the individual players also adds greatly 
to the interest. 

The game is played in four quarters of 15 minutes 
each, with a 15-minute intermission between the sec- 
ond and third quarters and one minute between the 
first and second and the third and fourth. The side 
which has the higher score at the end of the fourth 
quarter wins. In computing time for the quarters, 
the officials do not include time required for unusual 
incidents, or anything not connected with the play, 
such as accidents. 

A team is allowed to displace any player with a sub- 
stitute at any time if such exchange is first reported 
to the Referee or Umpire. A player so displaced may 
again return once to the game, at the beginning of a 
subsequent quarter or at any time during the last 
quarter. 

The following detailed directions for the game 
are based on the Ofl&cial Intercollegiate Rules. Ex- 
planations and rules are grouped under the following 
headings : (a) THE FIELD ; (b) TEAMS : the various 
positions; (c) THE GAME: quarters, choice of goal, start, 
kick-off, scrimmage, formation and rules; (d) ADVANC- 
ING THE BALL : after a kick-off, after a snap-hack, for- 
ward pass, running and tackling; (e) METHODS OF 
PLAYING THE BALL: batting, kicking, fair catch; 
(/) WAYS OF MAKING A GOAL AND OF SCORING: 
touchdown, goal from touchdown, punt out, goal kicked 
from field, touchback, safety; (g) SCORE; (h) OFFI- 
CIALS; (i) OUTFIT; (j) HISTORY; (k) BIBLIOGRA- 
PHY; (m) GLOSSARY. 



1 86 



Football (Intercollegiate) 



End Line 



END ZONE 
Goal Line 



T" 

,10 Yds. 



\ Goal \ 



Right Half Back 



Full Back Left Half Back 



Right End 



Left End 



Quarter Back 



Right Tackle 



Left Tackle 



Right Guard 



Left Guard 



Center 



THE FIELD. —DIMENSIONS AND LINES. —The 

field consists of a rectangle, measuring 360 X 160 feet. 

The three-hun- 
dred-and-sixty- 
foot lines are 
called side lines 
and the one-hun- 
d r e d - and-sixty- 
foot lines at the 
ends are called 
end lines. In 
addition to these 
boundary lines, 
10 yards inside 
of each end line 
is drawn parallel 
with it, a goal 
line that marks 
off the " end 
zone." Parallel 
to these end and 
zone lines, at in- 
tervals of 5 
yards, other par- 
allel lines are 
drawn, to assist 
the officials in 
judging the dis- 
tances which the 
ball is advanced, 
and for other purposes. The end lines, goal lines 
(10 yards from end lines), and 20- and 40-yard lines 



-y — ^- 



• • ©Ball • 



15-35 



0, « 



• Quarter Back oc 



18 Ft. 6 in. 



/Go 






Goil/'^ 



10 Ft. 



Goal Line 

END ZONE 

- -160 Ft. 



10 Yds. 

J 3 



30 
35 
40 
45 

V) 

50 i 

45 

40 



End Line 



FOOTBALL (INTERCOLLEGIATE) 

Diagram of field, showing position of players at 
kick-off. 



The Center 187 

in each half of the field are usually made especially 
heavy, as they are likely to be used for various pur- 
poses in the course of the game. 

The marking of the ground should be done with Hme 
and a regular marker. The Unes should be very dis- 
tinct, especially the boundary lines of the field, as a 
ball touching them is ^^ in goal " or ^^ out of bounds '' 
and the fact of the touch must be plainly discernible. 

The effect produced by the many intersecting lines 
of a ball field is what has given rise to the designation 
of the field as the Gridiron, 

GOAL. — A goal is placed in the center of each of the 
goal fines. A goal consists of two upright posts which 
must be more than 20 feet in height, placed 18 feet 
6 inches apart. On these uprights a horizontal cross 
bar is placed 10 feet from the ground. There is no 
goal box made of netting as in some other ball games. 

TEAMS. — THE VARIOUS POSITIONS. — Football 
is played by two teams of 11 men each. The duties 
of each player are highly speciaHzed. The players on 
a team consist of one center, two guards, two tackles, 
two ends, one quarter back, two half backs, and a 
full back. 

Each player must be perfectly cognizant of his 
own duties, in order to be efficient. A guard cannot 
effectively play at tackle nor an end at half back 
without special training. 

THE CENTER. — The duty of the center in a scrim- 
mage, when his team has possession of the ball, is 
to pass it to the quarter back and then quickly charge 
the opposing center to prevent him from crashing 
through the line and tackling the man \^th the ball. 



1 88 Football (Intercollegiate) 

He thus serves both as snapper-back and inter- 
ference. 

The center should stoop over, with his right foot 
sUghtly back of the left and his body well braced, so 
that a pull forward will not land him on his face nor 
a push backward send him sprawKng. The center 
should place both hands flatly over the half of the 
ball farthest away from his body, the thumbs well 
up over the top and the arms straight. A swinging 
motion of the arm and snap of the wrists will carry the 
ball accurately to the quarter back. After having 
passed the ball, he should charge so quickly and with 
his body so low, that the opposing center will be carried 
backwards and off his feet. The center should note 
the signals carefully, so as to know in what direction 
to charge the opposing center. 

An opponent should always be pushed in a direc- 
tion away from that to be taken by the runner with 
the ball. 

If the ball is to be carried through a hole between 
right guard and center, the latter should charge his 
opposing center to the left. The left guard should 
assist the center, paying little attention to his own 
guard, who will be unable to get in the way. 

If, however, the quarter back goes back on line 
with the other three backs, the ball will be passed 
directly to the player ('' direct pass ")? who is to run 
with it. In that case the center must watch the body 
of the back about to carry the ball and pass it 
shghtly ahead of the runner, so that the latter need 
not slow up, when about to catch the ball. 

When on the defensive, the center, if a heavy man 



The Guard 189 

who is not exceptionally fast, should play up in the line 
and charge through the instant the ball is passed. 
If he find that he cannot get through the opposing 
line, he should throw the opposing center back into 
the play and thus prevent those in the back field from 
getting a quick start. When about to charge, his 
hips should be low, his shoulders slightly higher than 
his hips, his right leg a little farther back than his 
left, and his body facing the opposing Hne. He should 
take advantage of the rule that allows a defensive 
player to use his hands as should every other player 
on the line. This is an immense advantage to the 
defenders and is too often overlooked. The team 
with the ball has not this privilege ; but must charge 
with the shoulders in order to get an opponent out of 
the way. 

If the center be a lighter, quicker man, he may well 
be played a yard and a half behind the center of the 
line, where he is in a position to stop a runner coming 
through any part of the Kne. 

THE GUARD. — The guard is usually a heavy man. 
His duty on the offensive is to quickly get into the 
interference, when the ball is being carried around an 
end or through the opposite side of the Hne, and to 
get his opponent out of the way, when the runner with 
the ball is attempting to get through the line to the 
right or left of this same guard's position on the line. 

If the right guard, he should always remember to 
help the center when the ball is being carried between 
the center and left guard, and to help his tackle when 
expedient. 

When on the defensive, his duties are similar to 



1 90 Football (Intercollegiate) 

those of the center. The foot nearer that of the 
center should always be locked with the center's 
and the other foot a little in advance. His crouch 
should be the same as that of a defensive center. 

THE TACKLE. — When his team has possession of 
the ball, the tackle should play close to his guard, 
crouched low, hips close to the ground, finger tips on 
line, prepared to ^^ box " opposing tackle; that is, 
he and his end to charge into the opposing tackle 
and prevent the latter from tackling or breaking up a 
play. 

When on the defensive, he should play farther away 
from his guard, with head up, body crouched low and 
prepared to use his hands on opponents in order to 
get past the opposing line and break up and stop 
a play before it reaches the line. 

A heavy, aggressive player is the most efficient at 
tackle, and a weak man there often means defeat. 

THE END. — When his team has possession of the 
ball, the end plays close to the tackle, crouched low, 
prepared to help his tackle '' box " the opposing 
tackle the moment that the ball is passed. 

The end should play four or five yards away from his 
tackle when on the defensive. Crouched up on the 
line, he should, with a sprinter's start, take two steps 
straight forward, when the ball is passed, and then, 
if he be the left end, diagnose the play and w;ith a 
quick turn to the right, dive into and break ilp the 
opposing interference. If possible, he should get the 
man ; if not, leave that to his half back. Under no 
circumstances, if there be an attempted end run 
around him, should the interference get by him. 



The Quarter Back 191 

The end should always be on the lookout for a 
fumbled ball, prepared to pounce upon it at once. 

If his team kicks the ball to the opponents, the end 
should be down the field as fast as the ball, prepared 
to tackle the catcher the instant the ball drops into 
the catcher's arms, unless the catcher has raised his 
arm to signal for a fair catch. 

THE QUARTER BACK. — Of all positions, that of the 
quarter back is the most important. He should, by 
letters or numbers, termed the signals, notify his 
team-mates of the formations to be executed. Either 
by signal or when the center is prepared to pass the 
ball, the quarter receives it and passes it backwards 
to the back, who will carry it toward the opposing 
line. Before the ball is passed, the quarter back 
should crouch back of the center with his hands 
spread apart in position for a pass from the center. 

When passing to a runner charging straight through 
the line, the quarter should aim the ball for the 
runner's stomach. If, however, a back is about to 
run around an end, the quarter back should toss the 
ball to the runner. 

In as much as a direct pass to a back is allowable, 
the quarter back often gives a signal to signify that 
he will drop on line with the other backs, and then 
the center will either snap the ball to the '^ quarter " 
or to one of the other backs, while the quarter back 
helps to get opposing players out of the way. 

When the .opposing team has possession of the ball, 
the quarter back should play far back of the line of 
scrimmage, prepared to tackle any runner with the ball, 
who might break through the line of defense. While 



192 Football (Intercollegiate) 

far back, he should attempt to understand his op- 
ponent's plays and should notify the men on the line 
of any activity behind the opponents' line. 

THE HALF BACKS AND FULL BACK. — The half 
backs and full back when on the offensive either carry 
the ball straight through the line or around the ends. 
Occasionally an end or tackle is given the ball to be 
carried around the opposite end or tackle. The backs 
should start the second that the ball leaves the center's 
hands. They should be prepared to start quickly 
by assuming a crouching, sprinter's start, five yards 
back of the center, — the full back between the two 
half backs. 

If the signal notifies a certain back that he is to 
carry the ball through or around a certain position 
on the enemy's line, the duty of the other backs is to 
clear the way by charging opposing players. 

When on the defensive, the half backs play about 
four or five yards back of their respective ends, pre- 
pared to intercept either a forward pass or a runner 
coming outside of tackle, around end or straight 
through the line. Ends and half backs must avoid 
being drawn in towards the center of the line by false 
moves of the opponents, while a runner prepares to 
dart around the end. The full back, when on the 
defensive, usually plays five or six yards behind the 
center of the line of scrimmage, prepared to dash 
forward and tackle an opposing runner with the ball 
coming through the line. 

THE GAME. — QUARTERS : CHOICE OF GOALS : 
The game is played in four divisions called quarters, 
each fifteen minutes in length, exclusive of time taken 



Start 193 

out for accidents, etc. Teams change goals after 
each quarter. Half way through the game the in- 
termission between quarters (second and third) is 
fifteen minutes to give the players a rest ; the other 
intermissions (between first and second, and third 
and fourth quarters) are only long enough (one 
minute) to admit of changing goals. No player may 
leave the field in these one minute intervals. 

At the start of the game, the captains toss a coin. 
The winner of the toss has his choice of the goal 
which he desires to defend. The loser will then kick-off 
to the winner. The v/inner may elect to kick-off. 
The loser then has the choice of goals. 

At the beginning of the second quarter, the teams 
change goals; but the team that at the end of the 
first quarter had possession of the ball retains pos- 
session and the down ; the relative position of the 
ball and the distance to be gained remain the same 
as at the end of the initial quarter ; that is, the ball 
is placed in the same relative position in the opposite 
hah of the field. 

After a fifteen minute intermission, the captain of 
the team that lost the toss has the same choice that 
the winner of the toss had at the beginning of the 
game. At the start of the fourth quarter, the teams 
again change goals and the same rules apply as do 
those at the start of the third quarter. 

START : A game of football opens with a kick-off 
from the center of the field, the teams being in 
kick-off formation. The third quarter of a game also 
opens with a kick-off, and the ball is always put 
in play by a kick-off after a goal kicked from the 



194 Football (Intercollegiate) 

field, and after a try-at-goal that follows a touch- 
down. 

For the second and fourth quarters the ball is put 
in play by a scrimmage. 

Penalty (Referee). — For putting the ball in play by any 
method other than that permissible by the rules, the scrimmage 
line is moved 5 yards farther away from the opponents' goal. 

KICK-OFF. — The player who kicks off stands sev- 
eral yards behind the ball, having placed it in position 
on a little mound of earth, its long axis parallel to the 
side lines, and then, after noting if his team mates are 
ready, kicks it toward a certain opposing player. On 
each side of the kicker, if he is the center, is a guard, 
then the tacklers and backs. Nearest to each side 
line is an end whose duty is to rush down the field, 
always careful not to cut in toward the center of the 
field too soon, so that the runner with the ball will 
be forced toward the center of the field and not 
be able to circle around and outside of the oppo- 
nents. 

The team to which the ball is kicked usually plays 
its center about 10 or 15 yards in front of the ball, 
with their other players dividing their territory. 

SCRIMMAGE FORMATION AND RULES. — The rules 
provide that at least seven players of the offensive 
team must be on the scrimmage line, and usually 
seven players of each side are on their own scrimmage 
line ; the balance of the players of a team are usually 
in a regular formation behind the scrimmage line. 
The opponents' scrimmage line must be 10 yards back 
in their own territory. 



Scrimmage Formation and Rules 195 

For other scrimmages than those which open the 
second and fourth quarters of the game, the ball is 
placed anywhere on the field where it was declared 
dead by the Referee, and the scrimmage lines are 
then imaginary lines drawn respectively through the 
two ends of the ball parallel to the side lines. 

A player to be considered on the line of scrimmage 
must have both hands or both feet up to or within a 
foot of this line, or one foot and the opposite hand 
within that distance. The two guards, who stand 
respectively on either side of the snapper-back, or 
center, may ^Mock legs'' with the snapper-back; 
that is, each may place one foot inside his team-mate's 
nearest foot so that the legs and knees brace or re- 
enforce each other. No other players on the scrim- 
mage may lock legs ; that is, all of the others on this 
line must stand with both feet outside of the outside 
foot of the player next him on the line. 

In a scrimmage no part of any player, except the 
snapper-back, may be in advance of the scrimmage 
line. The snapper-back, for the purpose of playing 
the ball, may have his head and his hands in advance 
of his scrimmage line. To have any other part of his 
body ahead of the line is a foul. 

Penalty (Umpire). — For a wrong position of any player,, 
the offending team loses 5 yards; that is, the scrimmage line 
must be moved that much farther away from the opponents' 
goal. 

Ball put in play by snapper-back. — In a scrim- 
mage the ball is always put in play by the snapper- 
back of the side having possession of the ball. He 



196 Football (Intercollegiate) 

does this by snapping it back with his hands between 
his feet to some other player of his team. 

Position of ball. — The ball must be placed flat on 
the ground, exactly (for the opening of quarters), on 
the center of the field, with its long axis parallel to the 
side lines. For other scrimmages than those which 
open the second and fourth quarters of the game, the 
ball is placed at any point on the field where it was 
declared dead by the Referee ; but wherever placed, 
the position of the ball itself must always be the same ; 
that is, it must lie flat on the ground with its long axis 
parallel to the side lines. 

Snap-back. — This is done with a quick, continuous 
motion of both hands. Any ^^oluntary movement of 
the ball by the snapper-back other than a genuine 
snap-back, whether such movement be a feint or only 
hesitation, is considered as putting the ball in play 
and opening the scrimmage. Should any feint or 
false move be deliberately made by any other player 
of the snapper-back's side for the purpose of mislead- 
ing the opponents and drawing them ^^ offside'' (ahead 
of the ball), the scrimmage is not considered as begun, 
whether the ball has been snapped back or not. 

Penalty (Referee) . — For such a false play the offending 
side pays a penalty of 5 yards ; i.e., must move the scrimmage 
line 5 yards farther away from the opponents' goal. 

The snapper-back may not be interfered with in 
any way by the opponents before he puts the ball in 
play either by their touching him or the ball. 

Penalty (Referee) . — For such interference the offending 
side loses 5 yards ; that is, the scrimmage line is moved 5 yards 
nearer to the goal line of the side not having the ball. 



Advancing the Ball: After a Kick-off 197 

On the other hand, no player of the side having the 
ball may grasp an opponent, or obstruct him in any 
way except with the body, while the obstructor's arms 
are close to his side or chest. 

Penalty (Umpire) . — For wrong interference the side having 
the ball loses 1 5 yards ; that is, must move the scrimmage line 
15 yards farther away from the opponents' goal. 

At the moment that the ball is put in play from a 
scrimmage, no player of the side having the ball may be 
ahead of the ball (toward the enemy's goal), either in 
whole or part of his person, with the sUght exception, 
mentioned above, of the snapper-back. 

At the moment that the ball is snapped back, only 
one player of the side having the ball may be in mo- 
tion, and this one player may move only toward his 
own goal, presumably to receive the ball being put 
in play. That is, he may run backward to catch the 
ball as it is snapped back. 

Penalty (Referee) . — Should more than one player of the 
side having the ball be in motion at the moment the ball is put 
in play, the offending side loses 5 yards; that is, must start 
the scrimmage line 5 yards farther away from the opponents' 
goal. 

ADVANCING THE BALL: AFTER A KICK-OFF. — The 

ball must go at least 10 yards into the opponents' 
territory, or be touched by an opponent, before any 
player of the side puting the ball in play may touch it. 
Any player of the receiving side may try to get pos- 
session of such a kicked ball. Such a player may stop 
the ball with the hands, as with a fair catch, or by 
dropping upon it. 



iqS Football (Intercollegiate) 

A ball kicked down the opponents' field gives the 
opponents a fair and equal chance to gain possession 
of it; but should the kicking side regain possession 
of the ball, after it has crossed the goal line, it 
counts as a down for them. A ball, however, must 
have been sent over the scrimmage line, have been 
touched by an opponent, to be considered as giving the 
opponents a fair and equal chance to play for it. 
Without such fair and equal chance, the team putting 
the ball in play are considered to have had it con- 
tinually in their possession, in which case they are 
required to advance it beyond the scrimmage line lo 
yards in four consecutive downs. It is, therefore, 
much to the interest of the side having the ball to 
put it in play in such a manner as to take it as far as 
possible beyond the scrimmage line. 

ADVANCING THE BALL : AFTER A SNAP-BACK. — 
The ball is usually caught by the quarter back, who 
stands a short distance behind the snapper-back, with 
his hands extended and parted, ready for the catch. 
The quarter back usually passes (tosses) the ball 
to one of the half backs for a run around the ends of, 
or through, the rush line, toward the enemy's goal. 
The player first receiving the ball from the snapper- 
back (presumably the quarter back) may himself 
carry the ball forward beyond the scrimmage line, or 
kick it, or he may pass it back to one of the other backs, 
or pass it forward to an end, or half back, or full back, 
who has darted ahead, after the ball was passed ; this 
play is termed a " forward pass." Thus the first 
move in a scrimmage, unless the snapper-back chooses 
to kick the ball forward, is usually back toward the 



Forward Pass 199 

side's 6wn goal as a preliminary to the advance of 
the ball. 

FORWARD PASS. — The ball may, with certain re- 
strictions, be passed or thrown forward toward the 
opponents' goal at the time of scrimmage by the 
team that put the ball in play, but not by the oppo- 
nents. 

In the first place, the pass must be made from a 
point at least 5 yards back of the line of scrimmage. 

Penalty (Referee) . — If the ball is passed forward by a 
player nearer to the scrimmage line than 5 yards, and this 
occurs before a fourth down, the ball must be brought back 
and put in play, at the spot of the preceding down; but the 
foul pass counts as a down; if the offense is committed after a 
fourth down, the ball must go to the opponents at the spot of 
the preceding down. 

The same penalty is given for an attempt to make 
a second forward pass in the same scrimmage ; also 
if the ball, after having been passed forward, strikes 
the ground either before or after having been touched 
by a player of either team eligible to receive it. This 
is called an incompleted forward pass. 

No player of the attacking side is eligible to receive 
the forward pass, except one who was at least one 
yard back of the line of scrimmage, when the play 
began, or else was on either end of the line. 

Penalty (Umpire). — If a tackle, guard, or other ineligible 
player of the passer's eleven, catches or even touches the ball, 
while being passed forward, the ball goes to the opponents at 
the spot of the preceding down. If the foul was committed 
between the opponents' lo-yard line and their end line, the 
ball may go to the opponents as a touchback. 



200 Football (Intercollegiate) 

Any player of the side not having made the pass, 
may intercept the forward pass, and secure the ball on 
the fly. If, however, the ball goes out of bounds, 
before having touched the ground, it goes to the 
opponents at the spot where the ball crossed the side 
Kne. 

No player may intentionally throw the ball to the 
ground, while attempting to make a forward pass, and 
after he has seen that no one of his players is free to 
receive the pass. 

Penalty (Referee). — The team having so offended before 
a fourth down must put the ball in play lo yards back of the 
spot of the preceding down and the attempted pass counts as a 
down. If, however, the offense was committed after a fourth 
down, the ball goes to the opponents at a spot lo yards back 
of the spot of the preceding down. 

RUNNING AND TACKLING. — A player running 
with the ball may ward off opponents with his hands 
and arms, and his opponents may tackle him with 
their hands and arms, or try in that way to get any 
intervening opponent out of the way in their effort 
to get at the ball; or they may so stop the player 
carrying it. This tackling, however, whether with 
hands or arms, or other parts of the body, may not 
be below the knees, except by those players of the 
defending scrimmage line who were not on its ends 
when the ball was put in play. The two players on 
the ends of the scrimmage line (offensive) may not 
tackle below the knees. 

Penalty (Referee, Umpire, or Linesman). — For tackling be- 
low the knees a side loses 5 yards measured from the spot 
where the tackle was made. 



Running and Tackling 201 

The body, at the time of tackling, should be plunged 
at the runner, one foot firmly on the ground, head to 
one side of the runner, shoulders aimed at a spot mid- 
way between his knees and hips. With a quick grasp 
of the arms draw the runner's legs toward the tackler's 
body. Never plunge so that the tackler's body, if 
the tackle is missed, will fall behind the runner and 
thus not impede his progress, but rather obliquely 
cross his path in front of him. 

A player running with the ball may not be tripped ; 
that is, obstructed below the knee by an opponent's 
leg below the knee or foot. 

No player may be tackled when out of bounds; 
that is, when he has crossed the side lines. 

Penalty (Referee, Umpire, or Linesman) . — For such an ille- 
gal tackling a loss of 1 5 yards from the spot where the tackle 
was made is the penalty. 

Should a player running with the ball drop or fumble 
it, any player of either team may try to secure it. 

Should a player running with the ball be success- 
fully tackled, that is, should the opponents stop his 
progress, — or any portion of his person, except his 
hands or feet, touch the ground while in the grasp of 
an opponent, — the Referee blows his whistle as 
signal that the ball is dead and it is called a down. 
Or the player running with the ball may himself call 
'^ Down " if he finds further progress impracticable, 
in which case the Referee will also declare the ball 
dead. 

Should a player running with the ball run out of 
bounds (over the side lines), that also ends his play, 



202 Football (Intercollegiate) 

as the ball is declared dead at the place where he or 
the ball touches or crosses the side line. 

There may be no tripping or tackling, nor any piling 
up on a player out of bounds or after the Referee has 
declared the ball dead. 

Penalty (Referee, Umpire, or Linesman). — For piling up on 
any player after the Referee has declared the ball dead, the 
offending side losses 15 yards; that is, the line for the next 
scrimmage is moved 1 5 yards nearer the opponents^ goal from 
the point where the ball was declared dead. 

METHODS OF PLAYING THE BALL. — The 

methods of playing the ball vary according to whether 
the ball is being played toward the opponents' goal or 
away from it. Under given circumstances, the ball 
may be kicked in various ways and also carried and 
batted. 

The ball may be played backward toward one's 
own goal in any way, at any time, and be caught by 
any member of one's own team. Thus any player 
may receive the ball from any player of his own team 
who is in front of him (between himself and the 
opponents' goal), but not from any player of his own 
team who is behind him. There is only one exception 
to this rule, the exception being called the ^^ forward 
pass." These restrictions are designed to prevent 
gaining ground by throwing or passing the ball for- 
ward, the spirit of the game being to confine such 
advance to kicking or carrying of the ball, with the 
exception of the forward pass previously mentioned. 

BATTING. — The ball may be batted in any direc- 
tion except toward the opponents' goal. 



Fair Catch ' 203 

Penalty (Umpire, or Referee) . — For batting the ball to- 
ward the opponents' goal the offending side loses the ball, 
being obliged to give it to the offended side on the spot where 
the foul occurred. 

KICKING. — There are three methods of kicking 
the ball, called respectively place kick, drop kick, 
and punt. 

A place kick is one in which a team-mate of the 
kicker holds the ball to a given place on the ground 
by placing a finger on top of it. The ball is held with 
its long axis perpendicular. 

A drop kick is one in which the kicker drops the 
ball from his own hands and kicks it after the first 
bound. 

A punt is a drop kick, in which the kicker drops the 
ball and kicks it before it touches the ground. 

FAIR CATCH. — A fair catch is a catch of a kicked 
ball by an opponent before the ball strikes the ground. 
The catcher must make a signal to indicate his inten- 
tion of making a fair catch and is then exempt from 
interference by any other player. The signal consists 
in raising a hand clearly above his head. Usually 
the entire arm is stretched upward, as the Referee may 
refuse to recognize as a fair catch a signal not clearly 
made. A player may so signal only in case he has 
opportunity to make a fair catch. Such opportunity 
consists in his being in such a position that it would 
be possible for him to reach the ball before it touches 
the ground. No other player of his side may touch 
the ball after the opponents' kick before the fair 
catch is made. Should any other player so touch it, 
the catch is invalidated. After a player has signaled 



204 Football (Intercollegiate) 

that he is going to make a fair catch, no opponent 
may interfere with him or the ball in any way. 

A signal for a fair catch does not protect from inter- 
ference any other player of the catcher's team. 

Penalty (Umpire). — For interference with a fair catch the 
offending side loses 15 yards; that is, the ball is moved 15 
yards nearer to the goal of the offending side from the point 
where the fair catch would have been made, and the offended 
side is considered as having made the catch, whether the ball 
was caught or not; that is, they may put the ball again in 
play by any kind of kick or by a scrimmage. 

A player making a fair catch may not take more 
than two steps with the ball after the catch. In 
other words, he may not run with the ball, the spirit 
of this play being to give the catching side the ad- 
vantage of gaining ground through a subsequent kick 
or a scrimmage^ 

Penalty (Umpire). — Should a player making a fair catch 
take more than two steps with the ball, he loses the chance of 
putting the ball in play by a kick and must put it in play by a 
scrimmage 5 yards back of the mark of the catch; that is, 5 
yards back of the spot at which the ball was actually caught, 
and this is counted a first down. 

After a player has made a fair catch he may not be 
thrown to the ground. 

Penalty (Umpire). — For throwing to the ground a player 
who has made a fair catch a side loses 1 5 yards ; that is, the 
mark of the catch is considered to be 15 yards farther away 
from the opponents' goal. 

After a fair catch the ball is dead, and the catcher 
may not run with it. The ball may be put in play 
again either by a scrimmage, punt, drop kick, or 



Ways of Making a Goal and Scoring 205 

place kick, made by the catcher or any player of his 
side, either from the mark of the catch or from some 
point directly back of it. This gives a freedom for 
choice of action without interference that makes the 
fair catch a very desirable form of play. 

After a fair catch, when the ball is put in play with 
a free kick (i.e., a kick without interference), no player 
of the side that made the catch and is going to make a 
kick may carry the ball. All players of this side 
must be behind the ball when it is kicked ; that is, they 
must be behind a Hne passing through the mark of the 
catch and parallel to the goal line, but once the ball 
is in play they may run forward of such a Kne. 

Penalty (Referee). — ^^ For violation of any rules by a side 
making a free kick after a fair catch, the ball is to be kicked 
again from a point 5 yards back of the mark of the catch, the 
opponents moving forward 5 yards from their assigned position. 

When a side makes a free kick after a fair catch the 
opponents must be behind a line 10 yards in front of 
the mark of the catch, until the ball is kicked or is 
released by a foul on the part of the side having the 
ball. 

Penalty (Referee) . — Should the opponents violate any of 
these provisions, the side making the free kick after a fair 
catch may make another kick 5 yards forward of the mark of 
the catch, and their opponents — the offending side — must 
move back toward their own goal 5 yards. 

WAYS OF MAKING A GOAL AND OF SCOR- 
ING. — There are two ways of making a goal — by 
a touchdown or a kick from the field ; and four ways 
of scoring — by a touchdown, a goal from touchdown, 



2o6 Football (Intercollegiate) 

a goal kicked from the field, and a safety. Detail 
explanation and rules for these are as follows : 

TOUCHDOWN. — A touchdown may be made by 
any player of a team who may lawfully have the ball 
in his possession ; that is, a player who is on side. 
He may himself carry the ball over the goal line and 
there touch it down, or he may touch down beyond the 
goal line a ball that has been kicked there by his side. 
For a touchdown it is enough for the ball to touch 
the opponents' goal line, or be on or beyond it. The 
touchdown is marked at the point where the ball is 
called down by the Referee, not at the point where it 
is carried across the line. Should it be carried beyond 
the side lines, — that is, an imaginary extension of 
the side lines beyond their intersection with the goal 
lines, — the touchdown is marked at the point 
where the goal line and side line meet. 

Goal from touchdown. —After a touchdown 
the ball belongs to the side that made the touchdown 
and they must put it again in play with a try at the 
goal or goal from touchdown ; that is, a free or un- 
impeded place kick for the opponents' goal. This 
place kick may be made from directly back of the 
point where the ball was declared dead by the Referee, 
or the side having the ball may punt-out; that is, 
they may kick the ball, without interference, back 
into the field of play with a punt for a fair catch by 
another player of the same side and, from the mark 
of the catch, try at goal. 

If the try at goal, after a touchdown, be made 
without a punt-out, i.e., without kicking the ball 
back into the field of play, the kicker may choose his 



Goal from Touchdown 207 

own point for placing the ball for this try at goal, so 
long as it is on an imaginary line drawn through the 
point where the touchdown was declared by the 
Referee, the imaginary line to be parallel with the side 
lines. In other words, the kick must be made from 
back of the goal line and directly forward or back- 
ward of the point of the touchdown. The kicker 
must indicate to the Referee the exact point from 
which he will make the kick. Making a goal with 
such a kick after a touchdown scores one point. 

The side scored upon lines up on the goal line, and 
rushes forward in the attempt to prevent the goal 
from touchdown. All of the players of the kicker's 
side must be behind the ball when it is kicked. 

Penalty (Umpire) . — For a wrong position of the players 
of the kicker's side during a punt-out, or for placing the ball 
at an illegal point, the offending side must move the ball 5 
yards directly back of the original mark or point. 

When a try at goal is made without a punt-out, the 
opponents must stand on or behind the goal until the 
ball is kicked. . 

Penalty (Umpire). — Should the opponents infringe the 
rule restraining their position during a try for goal, the kick- 
ing point for the ball may be moved 5 yards ahead of its origi- 
nal position, and the restraining line for the opponents is moved 
5 yards back of the goal line. 

After this try at goal following a touchdown, 
whether the goal be made or not, the ball is put in 
play by a kick-off at the center of the field, as at the 
opening of the game, except that the side scored upon 
has the option of kicking off or having their opponents 
kick off, and the teams do not change goals. 



2o8 Football (Intercollegiate) 

PUNT-OUT. — If a touchdown is not made at a 
point from which the goal might be conveniently 
kicked, as written before, the side making the touch- 
down may punt-out ; that is, kick the ball back into 
the field for a fair catch by one of their own side, 
after which a place kick is made from the mark of 
the catch or any point directly behind it. 

To punt out after a touchdown, the punter must 
kick from within an angle, made by drawing an im- 
aginary line parallel to the side line through the spot 
of the touchdown. 

For a punt-out the other players of the punter's 
side must be, when the ball is kicked, within the field 
of play, not less than 5 yards from the goal line. 

Penalty (Umpire) . — Should the players of the punter's 
side be within illegal distance of the ball when it is kicked 
(less than 5 yards) the ball shall be punted out again, with 
the restraining line of the punter's side 5 yards nearer their 
own goal line. 

The opponents during a punt-out may line up any- 
where on the goal line or behind it within 5 yards of the 
punter's mark, and until the ball is kicked may not 
enter the field of play or go nearer than 5 yards to the 
punter's mark. 

Penalty (Linesman) . — Should the opponents go beyond 
their legal restraining line during a punt-out, the ball is punted 
out again, the opponents being behind a new restraining line 
placed 5 yards back of the goal line. 

The side making a try at goal after a touchdown 
must kick the ball on the first try, or if they punt 
out, must succeed with a fair catch on the first try, or 



210 Football (Intercollegiate) 

lose the opportunity for further try. at goal, as the 
ball must thereafter be put in play by a kick-off at 
the center of the field. 

A try at goal after a touchdown is made with a 
place kick, whether preceded by a punt-out or not. 
Should a punt-out precede it, the kick is made from 
the mark of the catch, or any point directly behind it. 
If the try at goal is made without the punt-out, the 
place kick must be made from some point outside the 
goal on a line parallel to the side line and passing 
through the point where the touchdown was declared. 
In other words, without the punt-out the kicker may 
move the ball back of the point of the touchdown if 
he indicates his intention to do so to the Referee. 

The method of kicking the ball for a try at goal is 
always a place kick, the ball being held for the kick by 
another player of the kicker's side. The ball may 
not at such a point in the game be put in play in any 
other way than with a kick. In other words, it is 
illegal at such time for any player of the kicker's 
side to run with it or pass it, and the opponents may 
not advance beyond the goal line until the ball has 
touched the ground for a kick. When this occurs 
they may at once press forward beyond the restraining 
line. 

Unless the ball is kicked instantly when it strikes 
the ground for a place kick, the Referee signals with 
his hand that the ball has touched the ground. Such 
a signal, or the kicking of the ball itself, or a foul by 
any player of the kicking side running with the ball, 
releases the opponents and they may at once run 
forward of their restraining line. 



Touchback: Safety 211 

Penalty (Umpire) . — Should the opponents advance con- 
trary to these restrictions, the ball may be kicked from a point 
5 yards ahead of its original mark, and the offending side may 
have a new restraining line 5 yards back of the goal line. 

These rules are intended to give the side having the 
ball a fair try for the goal, and the penalties for in- 
fringement of distance rules by opponents are intended 
to make it more difficult for them to get at the ball 
after it has been kicked. 

GOAL KICKED FROM FIELD. — A goal may be 
kicked from the field by any player on a team. The 
kick must be a drop kick or a place kick — not a punt. 
The ball must pass over the cross bar and between the 
uprights. 

TOUCHBACK. — A player defending his own goal may 
stop the ball on or beyond the goal line, so that the 
Referee declares it dead. If the impetus which sent 
the ball was from an opponent, and the defending 
player has the ball in his possession when it is declared 
dead, such a play is called a touchback. 

SAFETY. — As a ball sent or carried over a goal 
line does not score unless there touched down by one 
of the attacking team, the defenders may prevent the 
touchdown by a safety, which consists in carrying 
such a ball back over their own goal line into the field 
of play and there touching it to the ground. This 
scores 2 points for the attacking team, but as it pre- 
vents a score of 6 points, it is an advantageous play. 

After a safety the ball is put in play by the defend- 
ing team (whose goal was crossed) by a scrimmage 
on their own 20-yard line. 

For a safety, the impetus which caused the ball to 



212 Football (Intercollegiate) 

go back over the goal line must have been given by 
the side defending the goal and may have been the 
result of a ^^ kick, pass, snap-back, or fumble by one 
of the player's own side/' a kicked ball hitting a 
player of either team behind the goal line and bound- 
ing back into the field, ^^ or in case a player carrying 
the ball is forced back, provided the ball was not 
declared dead by the Referee before his goal line was 
reached or crossed." ^ 

SCORE. — There are four ways of scoring in foot- 
ball: 

(i) A touchdown scores 6 points for the team mak- 
ing it. 

(2) The side making the touchdown may score one 
further point on a goal kick. This is the same whether 
the kick be from behind the point of the touchdown, 
or from the field of play after a punt-out. 

(3) A goal kicked from the field scores 3 points. 

(4) A safety is penalized by 2 points added to the 
score of the attacking team. 

OFFICIALS. — The officials in a match game of foot- 
ball are a Referee, Umpire, Field Judge, and Linesman. 

These officials are usually selected by the home 
team, their names being sent to the visiting team for 
approval some days in advance of the game. 
- Stated briefly, the duties of these officials are as 
follows : 

The Referee is the head official in charge of the 
game. He is the judge of time limits, of the score, 
and, in general terms, of all rules relating to the ball as 
distinguished from the players. He alone gives 
signals for play to start and stop, at the beginning 



Referee 213 

of quarters, or for fouls. This he does with a whistle. 
Other ofl&cials signal fouls (with bell or horn), but play 
continues until the Referee blows his whistle for it to 
stop. These other officials report all fouls in their juris- 
diction to the Referee, and he enforces the penalties. 

In detail the duties of officials are as follows : 

REFEREE. — The supreme authority in a football 
game is the Referee. His duties begin before the game 
opens, when he should inspect the field to see that 
dimensions and marking are correct, and the goal 
and ball (the latter furnished by the home team) 
according to specifications. 

He then has responsible charge of the conduct of the 
entire game, except that within certain jurisdiction 
the judgment of his sub-ofiicials is final. 

Before the game opens the Referee must see that 
the proper ofiicials are present and ready. From 
each Captain he must learn that his team is ready. 
Of this readiness of officials and players he must make 
sure also before he orders play to begin after the game 
has been stopped ; that is, before every kick-off, 
and after time has been taken out for any reason. 

The number of players engaged is thus a matter 
for the Referee, but rules about their dress are enforced 
by the Umpire. No substitute may take part in a 
game without first reporting personally to the Referee, 
and this official must see that the replaced player does 
not return to the game. 

The ball is particularly under the jurisdiction of 
the Referee. He is the judge of all rules relating to 
the ball, as distinguished from those relating to the 
players. He is responsible for seeing the ball put 



214 Football (Intercollegiate) 

properly in play at any time through the game, and is 
the sole judge of its position, such as its relation to 
goals and side lines. He it is who judges whether or 
not the ball has been advanced, and, if so, how far. 

Players are observed by the Referee (and reported 
by him to the Umpire) for unlawful obstruction and 
use of hands and arms, and for offside and onside 
play. Where such joint service occurs, precedence 
belongs to penalties declared by the Umpire. 

The score is decided by the Referee. 

Time limits are announced by the Referee, though 
estimated and reported to him, by the Linesman. 
He signals with a whistle for play to start and stop, 
both at the beginning and end of quarters and for fouls. 

Position. — The Referee usually stands just back, 
and a little to one side, of the backs of the team in 
possession of the ball, where he can watch the ball as 
it is being passed. 

UMPIRE. — This official acts as an assistant to the 
Referee, and judges of the position and conduct of 
players, as distinguished from the supervision and 
progress of the ball, which duties belong to the Ref- 
eree. The Umpire judges of fouls in the nature of 
holding, offside plays, and unfair tackling. 

When he sees a foul, the Umpire signals with horn 
or bell, and immediately reports it to the Referee, 
who alone has power to suspend play, and to enforce 
penalties. 

The Umpire usually stands at the end of the scrim- 
nrage line oppposite to that which the Linesman is 
watching ; or else in the territory 6 or 7 yards back 
of the defensive center. 



Officials 215 

• FIELD JUDGE. — This official simply acts as an 
" assistant to the officials under the direction of the 
Referee." In many games a Field Judge is omitted, 
and an Assistant Linesman used in his place. 

The Field Judge, if one be used, is usually assigned 
a position 15 yards in advance of the team with the 
ball, so as to be in a position to watch the receiver of a 
forward pass and those who may attempt to interfere 
with the catch. 

The Field Judge signals to the Referee when he 
sees a foul. This he does with a horn or by holding 
up his hand. 

The Field Judge must keep the time, counting the 
time only when the ball is actually in play ; he also 
acts as an assistant to the other officials. 

LINESMAN. — This official is particularly charged 
with noting the distance which the ball is advanced, 
and estimating time Hmits. 

The Linesman marks after each down the point 
where a Hne through the ball, and at right angles to 
the side Hne, would intersect the side Hne. 

Two assistants each hold a rod about 6 feet long. 
To the end of each rod is attached a chain 10 yards 
long. The assistants keep this lo-yard chain taut, 
so that the Referee can judge whether or not 10 yards 
have been gained after 4 attempts to plunge through, 
or around the end of, the opposing line. 

The Linesman also reports to the Referee any off- 
side play, tripping of ends, or " encroachment upon 
the neutral zone.'' The Referee must, of necessity, 
then enforce the penalty for those fouls. 

He must notify the Captain of the time remaining 



2i6 Football (Intercollegiate) 

to play when between lo and 5 minutes before the 
end of a quarter and must comply with the request 
of a Captain to know the time at any time during 
the game, with the exception that he may not comply 
with such a request more than 3 times within the last 
5 minutes of play in either quarter. 

He may report to, or assist, the Referee or Umpire 
in the matter of determining just when a ball went 
out of bounds, how often Captains have asked for 
^^time to be called " {^' time out '')? length of delay 
of game, coaching from the side lines and rough, 
unfair, or unsportsmanlike conduct of a player. 

The Linesman remains near the side line and moves 
back and forth with the ball. 

OUTFIT. — THE BALL. — Intercollegiate football 
is played with a prolate spheroid ball, — the so-called 
oval or Rugby ball. This is what is commonly known 
as a laced ball, and consists of an inflated rubber 
bladder, usually filled ('^ blown up'^) with a foot or 
hand pump, and then inclosed in a laced leather cover. 
The diameters of the ball are not officially specified, 
but are about gj X 6| inches. The weight must be 
from 14 to "15 ounces. The ball used has a rubber 
bladder, covered by a leather case. The best grade 
of ball costs $5. 

DRESS. — Leather head guards to protect the skull 
cost from $2 to I4. Rubber nose guards cost 50 
cents. Shoulder pads and collar-bone protectors of * 
leather, padded with felt, cost from .$2 to $5. A 
jersey costs $3 ; padded pants, $3.50; shin guards of 
leather, $1.50; and leather cleated shoes, from $4 
to $8. 



History 217 

HISTORY. — The beginnings of modern football 
are very far in the past. The Ancient Greeks played 
a seizing game of ball, in which two opposing sides 
tried to seize and carry away a ball (called harpas- 
tum). Another form of play, exactly opposite, was 
their epikoinos, in which, starting the ball on a certain 
line, each party tried to send it over the opponent's 
goal line. 

For centuries in England whole village communi- 
ties divided annually in two opposing parties that 
drove a ball from one end of the village to another. 

Like many other games, football earned the distinc- 
tion of several royal edicts forbidding its play in 
England in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. 
Doubtless the game had undergone considerable 
modifications from the wild play of these early days, 
when it was adopted, about 1800, by English schools 
and universities. 

The beginning of the modern Rugby is indicated by 
a tablet at Rugby School which reads : 



This stone 

commemorates the exploit of 

WILLIAM WEBB ELLIS 

who with a fine disregard for the rules of football 

as played in his time 

first took the ball in his arms and ran with it 

thus originating the distinctive feature of 

The Rugby Game 

A.D. 1823. 



2i8 Football (Intercollegiate) 

Harvard University is credited with introducing 
this game to the United States in 1875, after its teams 
had played the game in Canada. Doubtless cruder 
forms of football had already existed here. The 
English game was subjected to changes here. The 
Intercollegiate game of to-day is a distinct variety of 
football differing from the English game, and also 
from the American game of a few years ago. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Official Handbook 

Official Football Guide. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New 
York, American Sports Publishing Company.) Official 
rules. 

. ■ The Game 

How to Play Football. A primer on the modern college game. 
Edited by Walter Chauncey Camp. Spalding's Athletic 
Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Com- 
pany.) 

American Football. By Walter Chauncey Camp. (New York, 
Harper & Brothers, 1891.) With thirty-one portraits. 

The Book of Football. By Walter Chauncey Camp. (New 
York, The Century Company, 19 10.) 

Football for the Spectator. By Walter Chauncey Camp. (Bos- 
ton, R. G. Badger, 1911.) 

Football, the American Intercollegiate Game. By Parke Hill 
Davis. (New York, C. Scribner's Sons, 191 1.) 

Encyclopedia of Sports and Games. Edited by the Earl of 
Suffolk and Berkshire. (Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott 
Company ; London, Heinemann.) 

The American Game of Football as Related to Physical Educa- 
tion. By David Starr Jordan. (In National Education 
Association of the United States, Journal of Proceedings 
and Addresses, 1910, pp. 357-362.) 



Glossary 219 

The Teaching of Gymnastic Games. By Wilbur P. Bo wen. 

(Ypsilanti, Mich., 1909.) 
Twenty Modern Football Plays. By George Levene. (Mount 

Vernon, N.Y., 191 1.) 
Football for Public and Player. By Herbert Reed. (New 

York, Frederick A. Stokes Company, 19 13.) With twenty 

diagrams and sixteen illustrations from photographs. 
A Course in Football for Players and Coaches. By Glenn 

Scobey Warner. (Carlisle, Pennsylvania, 1908.) 

GLOSSARY 

Coach. Man in charge of the coaching and the training of a 
team. To instruct, drill and train a team. 

Crawling. Trying to advance a ball that has been declared 
dead. 

Down. Touching the ball to the ground to make good an 
advance. 

Drop-kick. A kick of the ball after being dropped from the 
hands of the kicker and after it has touched the ground 
and rebounded. 

End. Player on the end of the line of scrimmage. 

End line. Farthest line bounding the end zone, or end of the 
field of play. 

End-zone. Ten-yard territory between the end line and the 
goal line. 

Fair catch. Catch, without interference, after having raised 
an arm as a signal; not more than two steps may be 
taken after the signal. 

Field goal. Goal made as a result of a drop- or place-kick, 
from the field of play over the crossbar of the goal. 

Forward pass. Act of passing the ball forward to a team- 
mate in the direction of the opponents' goal. 

Free kick. A kick, at the time of which the opponents may 
not come within a prescribed distance of the kicker, un- 
til the ball is put in play. 

Goal line. Line, ten feet inside of the end line and parallel 
to it. 



220 Football (Intercollegiate) 

Guards. Players on each side of the center on the line of 

scrimmage. 
Interference. Players, who run ahead of the man with the 

ball. 
KlCK-OFE. Act of kicking the ball from the 40-yard line at 

the beginning of the game or after each touchdown. 
Neutral zone. Open space on the line of scrimmage be- 
tween the opposing players. 
Offside. Ahead of that team-mate who has the ball; i.e., 

between him and the goal opponents are defending. 
Onside. On line with, or back of, that team-mate who has 

the ball; i.e., between him and the goal one is defend- 
ing. 
Out of bounds. On or over the restraining side-lines or end 

lines. 
Place kick. Act of kicking a ball, held to the ground by a 

team-mate. 
Punt. Act of kicking a ball, before it reaches the ground, 

after having been dropped from the hands. 
Punt-out. Act of kicking from behind the goal line to team- 
mates in the field of play after touchdown. 
Safety. Act of defenders, when in danger of being scored 

upon, touching the ball down back of their own goal line. 

For this the opponents score two points. 
Scrimmage. Meeting of opposing lines. 
Scrimmage line. Line formed when the contending teams 

face each other, preliminary to putting the ball in 

play. 
Side-line. Restraining three hundred sixty foot line on 

each side of the field of play. 
Signals. Numbers or letters cried out by the quarter back 

to apprise his team-mates of the nature of the succeeding 

play. 
Snapper-back. Another name for the center. 
Snapping the ball. Act of center, when passing the ball to 

the quarter back. 
Tackle. Player, whose usual position is just outside of the 

guard on the line of scrimmage. 



Glossary 221 

Act of throwing the arms around a player having the 

ball in an attempt to throw him. 
TouCHBACK. Ball sent over the goal Hne by an opponent, 

but in possession of a defender of the goal. 
Touchdown. Ball (legally in possession of a player), any 

part of which is placed by him, on or over the opponents' 

goal Hne. 



GOLF 



GOLF 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Golf is an outdoor 
game, — almost the only walking game played 
with a ball. Its popularity is doubtless due largely 
to this combination, as well as to the skill required. 
Distinctly the national game of Scotland, it is popular 
in England, France, America, and other countries. 

The game is played over links (called also a golf 
course) which may be laid out on any grass-covered 
or sand-covered stretch of sufficient length. Through- 
out the course, at distances of several hundred yards, 
are holes (in the ground) four and a quarter inches in 
diameter. The game consists in driving a small ball 
by means of clubs from hole to hole, using as few 
strokes as possible. The first stroke toward each 
hole is made from a smooth area called the teeing 
ground. The holes are surrounded by smooth turf 
called the putting green. 

Between the teeing ground and the putting green 
are sections of ground having varied characteristics, 
that make play over them varied in difficulty. These 
sections are called the fair green, the rough, and 
hazards. 

The game, like others, falls into several natural 
divisions. Explanations, rules, and etiquette relating 
to each division are here grouped under their respec- 

Q 225 



226 Golf 

tive headings, which are as follows : (a) THE COURSE 
OR LINKS ; (b) CLUBS ; (c) FORM : grip, stance, ad- 
dressing the hall ; stroke, definition of, kinds of, rules for ; 
(d) DIFFERENT KINDS OF GAMES, MATCHES, OR 
COMPETITION : match play, stroke competition, three-, 
four-, and best-ball matches, bogey competition; 
{e) PRECEDENCE ON THE LINKS : the honour, at the 
first lee, in diferent matches, at second and successive 
tees, order of individual play through the green, playing 
out of turn; (/) PUTTING THE BALL IN PLAY: SUM- 
MARY — by teeing, dropping, etc, — DETAIL — of teeing 
of, ball dropped, placed, re-teed, out of bounds; 
(g) PLAYING THROUGH THE GREEN: the approach; 
(h) PUTTING OR HOLING OUT : stymie, assistance in 
holing out; (i) SCORE; (j) HANDICAPS; (k) GEN- 
ERAL RULES FOR PLAYING THE BALL THAT APPLY 
TO ALL PARTS OF THE GAME : the lie of the ball, loose 
impediments, obstacles that may be removed, casual 
water, hazards, water hazards, moving a ball and play- 
ing or interfering with a ball in motion, ball may be 
lifted, playing wrong balls, lost balls, advice and infor- 
mation; (/) OFFICIALS; (m) OUTFIT; (n) HISTORY; 
(o) BIBLIOGRAPHY; (p) GLOSSARY. 

THE COURSE OR LINKS, — In Scotland, the 
native home of golf, the most famous links are situated 
on undulating ground along the coast; but courses 
may be laid out wherever sufficient distance is avail- 
able, a varied surface making the most interesting 
links. 

A standard course may have 9 or i8 holes (some 
have 12 and 15) though most games are i8-hole 
games. The total length of a course will vary from 



The Links 227 

about 3000 to 6500 yards (2^ to 3! miles). The 
distance between holes is rarely shorter than 100 
yards or longer than 600 yards. 

TEES. — At the start for each hole is a teeing ground, 
a smooth area, the front of which is indicated by two 
disks set on staffs so as to point at right angles to the 
course. From behind the imaginary line between 
these two disks, a player drives his ball, usually from 
a small mound of sand, or tee, about an inch high. 
This is called teeing the ball. He may not set the 
ball back farther from the imaginary line than two 
clubs' lengths. 

The teeing ground for each hole is placed compar- 
atively near to the putting green of the previous hole. 

THROUGH THE GREEN is the general name given 
to all ground (except hazards) that lies between a 
teeing ground and a putting green. 

FAIR GREEN. — About midway between the teeing 
ground and the putting green is a section called the 
fair green, which affords a fine playing surface, not 
occupied by hazards, or intentionally left as the rough. 
The presumption is that the player will cover the fair 
green in few strokes, being able to address and strike 
his ball without encountering a bad lie. 

HAZARDS. — Through the green, there may be 
all manner of hazards ; that is, obstacles to the flight 
of the ball. A hazard may, for instance, be a bunker 
— i.e., a mound of earth or embankment — a pond, 
marsh, road, fence, trees, stream, or sand trap. These 
hazards may be natural or artificial ; they add to the 
zest of a game by catching the ball from poorly 
played shots. 



228 Golf 

THE ROUGH. — In addition to recognized hazards, 
patches of uncut grass and sections of uneven ground 
are located on either side of the fair green, and gener- 
ally for a considerable distance in front of the tee, 
to penalize a shot that is off direction, or a tee shot 
that does not travel a sufficient distance. Such 
patches of ground are called the rough. 

HOLES : PUTTING GREEN. — Each hole is located 
in an area of closely cut, smooth turf, called the 
putting green, generally at least 20 yards square. 

Each hole is 4J inches in diameter and at least 4 
inches deep. It has a metal lining; but the metal 
edge of the Uning must be i inch below the level of 
the ground, that there may be no danger of the balPs 
striking it, before rolling in. A flag marks the posi- 
tion of each hole. 

Some putting greens are practically level and many 
are slightly undulating. On the most difficult courses 
putting greens sometimes have sand pits dug in them 
as a hazard. 

The selection and laying out of golf grounds is a 
very critical matter and should have the best expert 
advice obtainable. 

CLUBS vary in length, weight, and shape. 

The driver has a long shaft, and wooden head. It is 
used for long shots from the tee or where the ball is 
virtually teed up. 

The brassy is akin to the driver except that the head 
is more laid back, or pitched, and it has a brass sole. 
It is used to play long shots from the top of a fairly 
good lie and when a maximum distance is desired. 

A cleek has an iron head and long shaft and is the 




GOLF CLUB6, BALLS AND CADDIE BAG 

1, driver ; 2, brassie ; 3, cleek ; 4, mid-iron ; 5, mashie ; 6, niblick ; 7, putter 

By courtesy of Messrs. A. G. Spalding and Brothers 



229 



230 Golf 

iron-headed club used for long shots. Its head has 
very little pitch. It is used for long shots when the 
lie is not quite good enough for a brassy, or when the 
distance desired is not quite so great. 

The mid-iron has a shorter shaft than the cleek, a 
deeper head, is heavier, has more pitch, and is used 
to throw the ball into the air when approaching the 
hole. 

The mashie has a shorter iron blade than the mid- 
iron, has more pitch to its head and is used for short 
approaches, or to play the ball out of difficult lies. 
Only a half- or three-quarter swing is brought to 
bear upon the ball when the mashie is used. 

The niblick has a small, round head, and is used to 
play the ball out of sand holes, or other hazards. 

The putter has a short handle and stands upright. 
It is used for the short shots, played on the putting 
green. 

There are other clubs, but the above are the most 
important. 

FORM. — Every would-be golf player is advised 
not to attempt playing from printed instructions, or to 
teach himself. The technique of golf is different 
from that of any other game ; the use of a golf club 
does not in the least resemble that of a baseball 
bat, a croquet mallet, or a billiard cue, and personal 
instruction and observation are essential. It is 
doubtful if there is any other game in which the finer 
positions and movements of every part of the body 
contribute so largely to the result. 

GRIP OF CLUBS. — This varies with different in- 
dividuals and for different clubs ; but there are two 



Form: Addressing the Ball 231 

general modes — one in which the fingers overlap 
each other and one in which they do not. 

STANCE. — The manner of standing when about 
to strike the ball {'' stance '0 is important if one is 
striving for accuracy. The legs should be well apart, 
the toes pointed outwards and the ball two or three 
inches nearer the left foot than the right. When 
holding the end of the shaft of the club at one's waist, 
one should be able to reach the ball easily. The arms 
should be bent and directed outwards and the eye kept 
on the ball. 

It is permissible for a player to bend such growing 
things as are necessary to take his stance, but nothing 
beyond this. {Rule XV.) 

ADDRESSING THE BALL. — A drive is usually begun 
by addressing the ball. That is, the player stands 
firmly near the ball (takes stance) with club in hand, 
and places the head, or striking end of the club, next 
the ball. 

Before hitting the ball, the club is swung back and 
forth over the ball in the direction of the hole a few 
times and then (except in hazards), rested on the 
ground (grounded) behind the ball for a moment. 
This is called addressing the ball. 

A player is considered to have addressed the ball 
when he has taken his stance and grounded his club, 
except in a hazard , where the club may not be 
grounded, and the stance and swing alone are con- 
sidered as addressing the ball. {Definition 17, Rule 
XXV.) 

Grounding the club while addressing the ball may 
be done with only a Ught pressure, and the club may 



232 Golf 

not be drawn backward and forward across the line 
of play. Penalty^ in Match Play, loss or hole; in 
Stroke Competition, two strokes. {Rule X.) 

It is permissible to touch the ball with the club in 
addressing it , but in so doing it must not be moved 
from its original place. {Rule IX, i.) 

If a ball fall off a tee, it may be struck while so 
falling, or it may be re-teed, without penalty. 
{Rule II, I.) 

In a hazard it is not permissible to ground the 
club in addressing the ball, but it may be swung for- 
ward and backward preliminary to the stroke. 
{Rule XXV,) 

In a hazard, if the ball move after the player has 
taken his stance , he is considered to have moved it, and 
is penalized one stroke in both Match and Stroke play. 
{Rule XII, 4.) 

STROKE. — Definition of . — This is a term used to 
describe the swing and contact of the club in hitting 
the ball. The stroke begins when the head of the 
club is moved back after addressing the ball, to com- 
mence the swing with which the ball is hit. Each 
club requires a different stroke, and several varieties 
of stroke may be played with any particular club, 
according to the location of the ball, the distance of the 
hole, and the height of the ball's flight. Personal 
instruction, observation, and practice are especially 
necessary for the strokes. 

Kinds of strokes. — Long shots are called drives. 

Shots from near the putting green, designed to 
place the ball on the green, are called the ap- 
proach. 



Form: Stroke 233 

After the ball has reached the green, the strokes for 
the hole (holing out) are called putting. 

To lift the ball more than enough to clear the ground 
is called lofting it. This is necessary over bunkers 
and often for a bad lie. The face of the different clubs 
is laid back at different angles to facilitate or avoid 
lofting. 

To draw the ball with the club toward the left side, 
instead of driving it straight ahead, is called pulling 
the ball. 

To send the ball toward the right, instead of straight 
ahead, is called slicing it. 

To hit the ball near the top, instead of full on the 
face, is called topping the ball. 

To hit the ground behind the ball, before the face 
of the club reaches the ball, is called sclaffing. 

Rules for strokes . — No one should move or talk 
when a player is making a stroke, or stand close to 
the ball or directly behind it. (Etiquette.) 

The ball should be struck by the center of the hitting 
surface of the club (the face) and this face should come 
in contact with the middle of the side of the ball oppo- 
site to the direction in which it is intended to drive. 
If it is intended to raise (loft) the ball, it should be 
hit a little below that point. 

No means of propelling the ball by the club other 
than with a stroke with the head of the club is per- 
missible ; that is, the ball may not be drawn along 
(spooned), or pushed, or scraped. For such play, the 
penalty in Match Play is loss of the hole, and in Stroke 
Competition, two strokes. (Rule V.) 

For hitting the ball twice with one stroke (i.e., 



234 Golf 

making or completing the stroke while the ball is 
moving) the penalty in both Match and Stroke Com- 
petition is one stroke, {Rule XIV.) 

No player may ask of, or receive from, any one but 
his own caddie, his partner or partner's caddie, advice 
as to which club to use, or how to use it, or any detail 
directions as to aiming a shot. {Definitions^ 2.) 

The general direction or line to a hole may be in- 
dicated to a player by any one through the green, or 
the direction from a hazard, before a stroke is made ; 
but no person or marker may be placed in line with 
the hole as an aid to aiming the shot. An infringe- 
ment of this rule is penalized in Match Play by loss of 
the hole; in Stroke Competition ^ by two strokes. {Rule 

IV, 4) 

A penalty stroke is one added to the score as a 
penalty for breach of rules, and not a stroke actually 
taken. One or two strokes is the usual penalty 
in Stroke Competition, but occasionally this form of 
penalizing is used also in Match Play. {Defini- 
tions ^ 14.) 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF GAMES, MATCHES, 
OR COMPETITION. — There are two estabhshed 
modes of play, called (i) Match Play, and (2) Stroke 
Competition, or Medal Play ; a third, called Bogey 
Competition, is of comparatively recent origin. 

In Match Play the object is to win holes ; that is, 
to make each hole in fewer strokes than the opponent. 
The important point of the score is holes won, not 
number of strokes over the entire course. 

In Stroke Competition, or Medal Play, the object 
is to go over the entire course with as few strokes as 



Bogey Competition 235 

possible. The score is therefore primarily of total 
strokes rather than of holes won. 

PARTNERS AND OPPONENTS. — In both Match 
Play and Stroke Competition two players may play 
against each other — called a Single (sometimes called 
a Twosome). Or two partners, playing one ball 
between them, may play against another pair ; this 
is called a Foursofue or Scotch Foursome. Or one 
player may compete against two who play one ball 
between them ; this is called a Threesome. In 
tournaments in Stroke Competition, singles only 
are allowed ; that is, not more than two competitors 
may play together. (Rule /, 2.) 

There are also Three-Ball, Four-Ball and Best-Ball 
Matches, in both Match Play and Stroke Competition. 

A Three-Ball Match is one in which three players 
play against each other, each playing his own ball. 

A Four-Ball Match is a game in which four balls 
are used, two partners playing their better ball (which- 
ever it may prove to be) against the better ball of the 
opposing two. 

A Best-Ball Match is one in which any number, 
from three up, may compete, each playing his own 
ball. The best ball v/ins. 

BOGEY COMPETITION is a form of play in which 
each player compares his score for each hole with an 
arbitrary, imaginary score fixed by a Committee. 
The player wins, loses, or halves each hole with this 
Bogey exactly as he would with an opponent. 

This Bogey score represents the number of strokes 
in which a good player might reasonably be expected 
to make each hole. 



236 Golf 

Bogey is thus a good average score, and should not 
be confused with par, which is theoretical perfection 
in the number of strokes for a hole. 

When several players play Bogey at once, each 
keeps his own record, and the one wins who at the end 
has to his credit the largest number of holes up (has 
won the largest number), or the fewest down. 

A player is often allowed a handicap in playing 
against Bogey as though he were playing against a 
scratch player. This handicap is arbitrarily assigned 
in the form of one or more strokes at certain holes, 
and is adjusted to the general handicap allowed each 
player by his club or golf association. 

PRECEDENCE ON THE LINKS. — Through the 
green a singles , threesome , or foursome has precedence 
over any other kind of match (such as three-ball, 
four-ball, or best-ball matches, or a Bogey com- 
petition), and may pass them. {Rule 7.) 

A single player has no standing and any kind of 
match has right of way past him. Two players play- 
ing one ball rank as a single player. {Rule I.) 

A match playing an entire round of the links may 
pass a match which is playing a shorter round. {Rule 

I.) 

A match that is playing so slowly as to be less than 
one clear hole ahead of a match coming up from behind, 
may be passed on request from the players who are 
gaining. {Rule I.) 

Players l ooking for a lost ball should voluntarily 
offer to allow players coming up to pass them, and 
should not resume their own play until these players 
are at a safe distance. {Etiquette.) 



Precedence: at the First Tee 237 

Precedence on the putting green has special rules 
that are given under '' Putting." 

THE HONOR: AT THE FIRST TEE. — The player 
who drives off first from any teeing ground is said to 
have the honor. 

At the first tee the honor is decided for the first 
game by lot {Rule II, 2), except in tournaments in 
Stroke Competition ; for such tournaments com- 
petitors strike off in the order of their names on the 
ofl&cial starting list. {Rule I, j.) 

In successive matches (games) the winner of the 
last match takes the honor at the first tee ; or, if 
the match wxre halved (a tie), the winner of the last 
hole has the honor for the new match. {Rule II, 2.) 

If a player drive off from any teeing ground when 
the honor belonged to an opponent, he is penalized, 
as follows : 

In Match Play the ball may be recalled at once by 
the opponents at their option ; there is no penalty, 
and the ball should be re-teed in its proper turn. 
{Rule II. 2.) In Stroke Competition the ball may 
not be recalled and there is no penalty. {Rule 

I, 3-) 

In a threesome or foursome , partners alternate with 
each other in striking off from the teeing ground, 
where their side holds the honor. {Rule III.) 

If a player play out of his turn , in a threesome or 
foursome {i.e., when his partner had the honor), a 
penalty is imposed : In Match Play his side loses 
the hole; in Stroke Competition, the player is dis- 
quaUfied. {Rule III) 

In best-ball and four-ball matches, the balls on the 



238 Golf 

side having the honor may be played in any order 
the side desires. {Rule VI.) 

THE HONOR AT SECOND AND SUCCESSIVE TEES. — 
The player or side that had the honor at the first tee 
retains it for succeeding tees until an opponent wins a 
hole. Thereafter the honor belongs to the player 
who won the last preceding hole. {Rule II, 2) 

If the last hole were halved (a tie), the one who had 
the honor at the previous teeing ground retains it. 
{Rule 1 1, 2) 

In a three-ball match, where all three players had 
the same score for the previous hole, they drive off in 
the same order as from the last teeing ground. {Rule 
IV.) 

All other rules for the first tee are the same for all 
other tees. 

ORDER OF INDIVIDUAL PLAY THROUGH THE GREEN. 
— After teeing off, the ball to be played next is always 
the one farthest from the hole, irrespective of how 
many strokes are played on it in comparison to the 
other balls in the match. {Rule VII.) 

PLAYING OUT OF TURN. — In Match Play, in 
singles, threesomes, or foursomes, if a player play 
out of turn through the green, or in a hazard, the 
opponent may have the ball recalled. There' is no 
penalty. The ball is then dropped as near as possible 
to where it lay before the stroke. {Rule VII.) 
The method of dropping the ball is described under 
General Rules. 

In Stroke Competition, and in any three-ball, 
best-ball , and four-ball matches (Stroke or Match), 
if, through the green, a player play when an opponent 



Putting the Ball in Play 239 

should have done so, the stroke may not be recalled, 
and there is no penalty. {Rule III.) 

In three-ball, best-ball, and four-ball matches, any 
player may request that another ball be played or 
lifted at any time, if, in his judgment, it hes so as to 
interfere with, or be of assistance to, other players. 
{Rule /.) 

PUTTING THE BALL IN PLAY: SUMMARY. 
— In golf a ball is considered to be in play from the 
first stroke on it on a teeing ground until it is holed 
out at the next hole, except when lifted according to 
rules. On a nine-hole course the fewest number of 
times a ball could be put in play would therefore be 
nine. 

Teeing : The first stroke for a hole is called teeing 
the ball, though it may rest on the ground or on a tee 
at the option of a player. See ^^ Detail of Teeing off " 
following. 

Between the teeing ground and holing out, certain 
contingencies may arise that will necessitate putting 
the ball in play again ; it is then either dropped, 
placed, or re-teed. 

A ball is dropped for one that has gone out of bounds. 
It must be dropped by the player of the ball it re- 
places. 

To drop a ball, a player must face the hole, and, 
standing erect, drop the ball behind him, over his 
shoulder. 

If the ball touch him as or after it falls, there is no 
penalty. 

If a dropped ball roll into a hazard or casual water, 
it may be re-dropped without penalty. {Rule VIII,) 



240 Golf 

A ball is placed by the hand, usually on the putting 
green. Except for lifting and placing a ball that lies 
nearer the hole or for identification (or in teeing), no 
ball may be touched by hand during a game. 

Re-teed . — In Stroke Competition a player may 
have any other ball lifted by its owner at any time 
that it interferes with his play. Such a ball is again 
put in play by being re-teed as near as possible to 
where it lay, but not nearer the hole. {Rule XL) 

DETAIL. — TEEING OFF. — A player may not drive 
from a tee until the players in front are at a safe dis- 
tance, having played at least a second stroke. It is 
customary when driving from a tee, to warn players 
ahead by calling ^' Fore ! " before the stroke is made. 
(Etiquette.) 

The first stroke or drive for any hole is made from 
the teeing ground for that hole. The teeing ground is 
understood to include a rectangular space extending 
not more than two club lengths back of the markers 
which indicate the front of the teeing ground and the 
direction of the hole. (Definitions, 4.) 

Should a ball be played from outside the teeing 
ground, in Match Play the opponent may, at his 
option, require its immediate recall. There is no 
penalty, but the ball must be re-teed on the teeing 
ground. In Stroke Competition, the stroke counts, 
but the ball must be immediately recalled and teed 
again from within the proper limits, with a second 
stroke. For failure to so re-tee the ball a player may 
be disqualified. (Rule II, i.) 

Teeing the bal l is placing it for the first stroke. 
It is optional with the player whether he place the 



Teeing ofif 241 

ball on the ground, or drop it, or place it on a tee. 
The more usual method is to erect a small tee of sand 
or earth about one inch high, and place the ball on 
top of it. {Definitions^ 16.) 

If a ball falls off a tee , or if the player knocks it off 
while addressing it, or if the player strikes it while it 
is falling off, there is no penalty, and the player may 
at once re-tee it. {Rule II, i.) To hit a moving ball 
under any other circumstances except in moving 
water is not permissible. 

If a stroke from the teeing ground carry a ball out of 
bounds , a player may tee another ball on the teeing 
ground and count it as a second stroke. {Rule 
XXIIL) 

Out of bounds is understood to mean all ground on 
which play is forbidden. When the greater part of a 
ball lies in a prohibited area, it is considered out of 
bounds. {Definitions, 8-g.) If doubtful about a ball's 
having gone out of bounds, a player inay (i) make a 
five minutes' search for the ball out of bounds, and his 
opponent may search for it simultaneously in bounds ; 
or, (2) to avoid delay w^hen in doubt, a player may 
play a provisional second ball from the tee, and, should 
he later find his first ball in bounds, continue his play 
on the first ball without penalty. If such a provisional 
second ball be played, the player must search for the 
first ball for five minutes when he reaches the place 
where it is likely to be found. 

A player may stand out of bounds to play a ball that 
is within bounds. {Rule XXIIL) 

Players looking for a lost ball must allow other 
matches to pass them. {Etiquette) 



242 Golf 

PLAYING THROUGH THE GREEN— After 

each player has made his first drive, the next stroke 
is made upon the ball that lies farthest from the hole, 
irrespective of whose ball it is or how many times it is 
so played. {Rule VII.) There are some exceptions 
on the putting green. 

Many of the rules of golf apply to the contingencies 
that arise between the teeing ground and the putting 
green (called playing through the green), such as the 
lie of the ball, dealing with impediments, obstacles, 
hazards, water, lost balls, etc. These rules are given 
in the classified list under their various headings. 

HAZARDS. — Rules for playing hazards are given 
under ^'General Rules.'' 

THE APPROACH is the stroke that places the ball 
on the putting green. It is usually made with a 
three-quarter, half, or wrist shot with a lofting iron, 
as distinguished from the full swing for a drive. 
The approach ^hot combines strength and accuracy 
and requires much skill. 

PUTTING, OR HOLING OUT. — RULES FOR. — 
When a ball has reached the smooth putting green 
most difficulties would seem to be over, and a good 
golfer should be able to hole out in two strokes ; for 
here there are no large obstacles, and hard strokes 
give place to gentle taps on the ball. Yet it is often 
said that more games are lost on the putting green 
than in any other part of the play. 

The putting green is considered to be all ground 
(except hazards) within 20 yards of the hole. {Defi- 
nitions, 10) 

No player should play a ball that lies on the putting 



Putting, or Holing Out 243 

green until the opponent's ball is at rest . The penalty 
for so doing in Match Play is loss of the hole ; in Stroke 
Competition, two strokes. {Rule XXX,) 

After a player has holed out, he should not try his 
putts over again when other players are coming up. 
{Etiquette.) 

A ball is considered to have been holed out by a 
player at his last stroke if 

{a) the stroke put the ball in the hole ; 

(6) a competitor's ball knocked the player's ball 
into the hole (in Match Competition only) {Rule 
XXXII, 2) ; 

{c) the ball lodged against a flag stick (Match Play 
only). In Stroke Competition, for a ball to hit the 
flag stick is penalized by two strokes {Rule XXXII, i) ; 

{d) a ball, resting on the lip of the hole, roll in, 
after an opponent, having holed out, has neglected 
to knock away the impinging ball {Rule XXXII, 3). 

The Order of pla}^ on the putting green is, in general, 
the same as through the green ; that is, the ball 
farthest from the hole is to be played. The few 
exceptions are noted below. 

If a player on the putting green play when his 
opponent should have played , the latter may have the 
stroke recalled at once, and the ball replaced for play 
in its proper order. {Rule XXXI, 2.) In Match 
Play Competitions, this recall and replacing of a near 
ball played out of turn, is compulsory. // not com- 
plied with, both competitors are disqualified. {Special 
Rules, I.) 

If a player play an opponent's bal l on the putting 
green, the ball must be replaced. {Rule XX, i, b.) 



244 Golf 

Interference of balls on putting green . — Two balls in 
line with the hole are called a Stymie if more than six 
inches apart. There are special rules for stymies, 
and also for balls six inches or less apart, in both Match 
Play and Stroke Competition ; also, for one ball's 
hitting another on the putting green, or knocking it 
into the hole. 

Stymie . — If another ball lie in line with a player's 
putt to the hole (the two balls being more than six 
inches apart), the condition is called a Stymie. This 
is treated differently in the various kinds of play 
and matches. 

In Match Play (singles, threesomes, or foursomes) 
a stymie must be negotiated; that is,. the ball to be 
played must be lifted over, curved around, or played 
to strike, the offending ball. In a stymie in three- 
ball, best-ball, and four-ball matches, a player (before 
he plays his stroke) may request an opponent to 
either lift his ball, or play it first. {Special Rules, I.) 

In a stymie in Stroke Competition, the competitor 
whose ball is farther from the hole may require that 
the nearer ball be either lifted or played first, as its 
owner may choose. // the owner refuse . to do this 
when so requested, he is disqualified. {Stroke Rule 

XIII, 3) 
When balls lie within six inches of each other on the 

putting green (measured from their nearest points), 
the nearer ball may be either lifted or played. This 
may be done on the initiative of either the player of 
the intervening ball, or the opponent. If the oppo- 
nent request it, the player of the nearer ball must com- 
ply (under penalty, in Stroke Competition, of dis- 



Putting, or Holing Out 245 

qualification, Stroke Rule XIII, j), but may choose 
between the two alternatives of Hfting or playing the 
ball. This applies both to Match Play and Stroke 
Competition. {Rule XXXI; Stroke Rule X, 2; 
XIII, J, 4.) It applies to all kinds of matches, sin- 
gles, threesomes, foursomes, three-ball, best-ball, and 
four-ball matches. {Three-ball Rule I.) 

If a player's ball moves a competitor's ball on the 
putting green , in Match Play, the competitor may, if he 
wish, replace it before another stroke has been played 
by either side. {Rule XXXII, 2.) In Stroke 
Competition, the player is penalized one stroke, and 
the displaced ball must be replaced. {Stroke Rule 
XIII, 2.) 

If the player's ball should have stopped on the spot 
that was occupied by the competitor's ball before it 
was displaced, the competitor, when his turn comes, 
may have the player's ball lifted until he replaces and 
plays his own ball. {Rule XXXII, 2.) 

If a player's ball knock an opponent's ball into the 
hole, in Match Play, the opponent is credited with 
having holed out with his last stroke. {Rule XXXII, 
2.) In Stroke Competition, each competitor must hole 
out with his own ball at every hole, or incur a pen- 
alty of disqualification. {Stroke Rule VIII.) There- 
fore in Stroke Competition a ball that might be 
knocked into a hole by a competitor's ball, must be 
lifted or played first (whichever its player choose) at 
the request of the competitor. A refusal to comply 
with such a request is penalized by disqualification. 
{Stroke Rule XIII, 3.) The player whose ball is 
nearer the hole may, in Stroke Competition, lift or 



246 Golf 

play it first on his own initiative. {Stroke Rule XIII ^ 
4.) This may not be done while the opponent's ball 
is in motion, under penalty of one stroke. {Stroke 
Rule XIII, 5.) 

ASSISTANCE IN HOLING OUT is very carefully 
guarded by the rules, and is the same for all kinds of 
matches (singles, threesomes, foursomes^ three-ball, 
best-ball, and four-ball) in both Match Play and 
Stroke Competition. 

The direction of the hole may be pointed out to a 
player on the putting green by his caddie, his partner, 
or partner's caddie, but they may not in any way touch 
the ground or mark the line of the putt for him. 
{Rule XXIX, J.) A player may send his caddie to 
stand at the hole, or any player or caddie in the 
match may stand there, but the}^ may not try to 
shield the ball from the wind. A player not be- 
longing to the match may not stand at the hole if 
either side object. For breach of any of these rules a 
player is penalized by loss of the hole in Match Play, 
and two strokes in Stroke Competition. {Rule XXIX, 
2.) If a ball strikes a player standing at a hole, or 
is stopped by such a player, the player of the ball is 
penalized two strokes. 

The flag stick may be left in the hole , or removed, 
as desired by either side. If a ball hits a flag stick 
that has been removed by its player, his partner, or 
their caddies, that player's side loses the hole in Match 
Play, and two strokes in Stroke Competition. {Rule 
XXXII.) 

If the flag stick is left in the hole, and the ball rests 
against it, the player of the ball is entitled to remove 



Putting, or Holing Out 247 

the flag stick. Should the ball then fall into the 
hole, the player is considered to have holed out at 
his last stroke. {Rule XXXII.) 

The line of the putt may not be marked in any way. 
The player may not draw his club over it or touch it 
in any way, except to place his club immediately in 
front of the ball in addressing it. He may not touch 
the ground beyond the hole as an aid in aiming his 
shot. Penally, in Malch Play, loss of hole; in Slroke 
Competition, two strokes. {Rule XXVIII, 3.) 

Loose impediments on any part of the putting green 
may be removed, no matter what their relation to the 
player's ball. These include loose leaves, branches 
or twigs, or stones, live worms, and a sand box from a 
teeing ground. These must be Hfted and removed 
by the hand. The club may be used to scrape aside 
dung, worm casts, mole-hills or tracks, snow and ice, 
which are also loose impediments ; but even for these 
it must not rest on the ground with more than its own 
weight. Nothing on the putting green may be pressed 
down, with the club, or in any other way. {Rule 
XXVIII, I, 2.) 

No growing thing may be moved , bent, or broken 
more than enough for the player to take his stance 
and swing his club for the stroke. {Rule XV.) 

Casual water on the putting green , as anywhere 
else, is a temporary accumulation of water ; but on 
the putting green, ice is also included in the defini- 
tion. 

If the ball He in such casual water, or so near it 
that the player cannot well take his stance, or so that 
the water is between the ball and the hole, the player 



248 Golf 

may either play it as it lies, or lift and place it else- 
where by hand (not drop it) . 

If placed elsewhere, it must be placed within two 
club lengths of where it lay, and directly behind that 
spot. If this is impracticable, it must be as near as 
possible to such a place, and yet afford a putt to the 
hole without the water intervening. {Rule XXVII , 

3, 4^ 5) 

SCORE. — One round of the links (unless otherwise 
agreed) is considered a match {i.e., a game). 

It is not considered possible to play satisfactorily at 
the same time both the Match Play and Stroke Com- 
petition. 

In Match Play (as distinguished from Stroke Com- 
petition) the side wins which makes the larger number 
of holes, each in fewer strokes than the opponents. 
It is not customary to play out all of the holes, except 
in tie games. When a side leads by a number of 
holes greater than the number remaining to be played, 
so that the opponents could not win even though they 
made all of the remaining holes, that side has won 
the match. 

When both sides make a hole in the same number 
of shots, the hole is said to be halved — a terni equiva- 
lent to a tie; neither wins. Similarly, if both win 
an equal number of holes in the course, the match is 
halved. 

The side which is one or more holes ahead is, in 
golf phraseology, one up, or two up, or whatever the 
number may be ; the opponent is then one down or 
two down. 

Whenever a side has won so many holes that even 



Score 249 

though the opponent win all the remaining holes, the 
result can be only a tie, then the side with the higher 
score is dormie. If one side were two holes ahead, 
with only two more to be played, that side would be 
dormie two, and if it won the next hole, it would 
have won by three holes and one to play. The one 
hole unplayed is called the bye. 

Between holes, if one player is one stroke ahead of 
the other, the second then plays the like. The other 
then plays the odd; in other words, is a stroke ahead. 
If a player is three strokes ahead of an opponent, and 
about to play, he plays one of three, then two of three, 
and then the like. 

In Stroke Competition the player who holes the 
stipulated course in the fewest strokes wins the game. 
{Stroke Rule I.) 

It is not considered possible to play at the same time 
satisfactorily both Match Play and Stroke Competi- 
tion. 

In official competitions in Stroke Play, singles only 
are allowed, that is, competitors play in couples ; 
no threesomes, foursomes, three-ball, four-ball, or 
best-ball matches are included in such official com- 
petitions. An odd player plays with a non-competitor 
in the match, or alone with a marker accompanying 
him. {Stroke Rule /, 2.) 

A tie between two competitors is decided by another 
round. In official competitions, this is played on the 
same or a succeeding day, as decided by a Committee 
in charge of the competition. 

A tie between an uneven num.ber of competitors in 
an official match is decided by placing their names on 



250 



Golf 



FOR FOURSOME OR 
2ROUNDSOFTWOSOME-8 
Hole Self. Opponent Self. Opponent Bogie Handicap Distance 



1 


4 


4 






4 


6 


300 




1 














2 


3 


4 






3 


8 


190 




2 














3 


4 


5 






4 


7 


250 


4 


1 
5 


4 






5 


3 


420 


5 


1 
4 


4 






4 


5 


330 



















6 


4 


3 






3 


9 


170 






1 












7 


6 


5 






5 


1 


510 






1 












8 


5 


5 






5 


2 


480 






2 












B 


5 


4 






4 


4 


370 



40 



38 
2 



37 



GOLF SCORE CARD 



The larger figures under " Self " and " Opponent " indicate the number of strokes 
in which the hole was made ; the smaller figures indicate the number of holes that 
one player is ahead of the other. 

a list in an order determined by ballot ; they play in 
couples in the order of names, the odd competitor 
being provided with a marker ; or the odd competitor 



Handicaps 251 

may be assigned to play with two others, if all three 
consent. {Stroke Rule III.) 

It is customary for competitors in Stroke Competi- 
tion to keep each other's score ; or a player outside the 
match may be assigned to each couple as a marker. 
A caddie may not serve as a marker, unless by special 
permission from the Committee in charge of a Compe- 
tition. 

The score for each hole should be called out as it is 
completed. {Stroke Rule V, i.) 

Score cards, before being handed in, must be signed 
by the person making them, and approved by the com- 
petitors. The Committee in charge of a Competition 
is responsible for the addition of scores. {Stroke 
Rule F, I, 2) 

A player should announce promptly when he has 
incurred a penalty. {Etiquette.) 

In Match Play Competitions, no player may waive 
a penalty which an opponent incurs. Penalty , loss 
of hole. {Comp. Rule II.) 

Competitors in Match Play Competitions may not 
agree to exclude any rule. Penalty^ disqualification, 
{Comp. Rule III.) 

HANDICAPS. — For a tournament, unless all 
competitors are scratch men {i.e.^ players who receive 
no handicaps), a handicap committee should agree 
on the number of strokes the most proficient player 
should use. Other competitors are allowed an addi- 
tional number of strokes, usually no more than eighteen. 

If a player who has received no handicap (scratch 
man) wins too often, he is sometimes peiialized several 
strokes. 



252 Golf 

In Match Play singles, competitors are given three 
quarters of the difference between their Stroke Play 
handicap. Thus, if A had a Stroke Play handicap of 
15, and B one of 8 strokes, A in Match Play would 
be allowed three quarters of the difference (7), or 
5 strokes (a half stroke or over counts as one more). 

In Match Play foursomes, a handicap is allowed 
of three eighths of the difference between the handicaps 
that the competitors would receive in Stroke Play 
competition. 

Each club course has a most difficult hole to make, 
and it is usually at this hole that the player is ordered 
to take his first handicap stroke, the others being taken 
on successive holes thereafter. 

Bisque is a handicap that may be taken at any 
hole ; but the competitor must so declare his intention 
before leaving that hole for another. 

GENERAL RULES FOR PLAYING THE BALL 
THAT APPLY TO ALL PARTS OF THE GAME. — 

THE LIE OF THE BALL. — As a general rule, a ball must 
be played from where it Hes, either in or out of hazards, 
or the hole given up. {Rule VI.) No irregularities 
of surface may be removed or pressed down by a 
player himself, or for him {Rule X) ; no rock may bO' 
moved that is embedded in the ground {Definitions, 
12), no growing thing may be bent, broken, pressed 
down, or moved, more than enough to give the player 
a good stance for addressing the ball {Rule XV) or to 
swing the club ; such growing things may, if neces- 
sary, be hit by the club as it swings for a stroke. 
(Rule XXV,) 



General Rules 253 

Penalty, in Match Play, loss of hole ; in Stroke 
Competition, two strokes added to score. 

If a ball is hidden in long grass, bent, bushes, or the 
like, these may be moved enough to disclose the ball, 
but not to release it. Penalty for breach of rule^ in 
both Match Play and Stroke Competition^ loss of a 
stroke. {Rule XXII, i.) 

From a ball completely covered in sand , enough may 
be removed to disclose the top of the ball. // more 
sand is removed, the penalty in Match Play is loss of 
the hole; in Stroke Competition, two strokes added to 
the offender's score. {Rule XXII, 2.) 

The only opportunities for improving the He or 
flight of a ball relate to loose impediments, casual 
water, and some fixed or moving obstacles. 

LOOSE IMPEDIMENTS may be removed if within a 
club length of the ball, but not beyond that length. 
{Rule XII) 

Such impediments are loose stones (not rocks em- 
bedded in the ground), mole hills or mole tracks, 
worm casts, live worms, dung, snow, and ice {Defini- 
tions, 12), and, on the putting green, fallen leaves and 
loose sand. 

// a ball moves as a result of a player, his partner or 
caddie moving a loose impediment, it counts as one 
stroke in both Match and Stroke play. {Rule XII, i.) 

OBSTACLES THAT MAY BE REMOVED include all 
articles connected with the equipment or upkeep of 
the grounds, such as any movable guide post, guide 
flag, or flag stick, wheelbarrow or other vehicle, 
tool, roller, grass-cutter, or box. A ground surface 
disturbed for the upkeep of the grounds is likewise 



254 Golf 

not considered a necessary hazard ; such, for instance, 
as ground under repair, holes in such ground, or flag- 
staff holes. Rain covers, water pipes, or hydrants 
are not considered as hazards. 

Any of these obstacles that are movable may be 
moved, or a ball touching any of them may be 
lifted and dropped a club length away, but not 
nearer the hole. {Rule XI.) 

CASUAL WATER through the green (ice, or any tem- 
porary accumulation of water from rainfall or flood- 
ing) {Definitions, 7 ; Rule XXVII) is not a recog- 
nized hazard. A ball lost or lying in such casual 
water may be removed and dropped, or another 
dropped in its place. 

This must be dropped within two club lengths of 
the margin of the water, and as near as possible to 
where the ball lay, but it must not be nearer to 
the hole. 

There is no penalty, and if the dropped ball rolls 
into the water, it may be re-dropped, with Hke im- 
munity. {Rule XXVII.) 

If a ball lies so near to casual water that the player 
cannot take a good stance, the ball may be dropped 
as though it were in the water. {Rule XXVII, 

HAZARDS. — A player may do nothing to improve 
the lie of a ball in a hazard, except to remove it from 
water, or to remove steps or planks used regularly 
for access to, or egress from, the hazard. 

As on the* green, he may not bend or move growing 
things except as incidental to a good stance or for the 
swing of the club for a stroke. 








LOFTING OUT OF A BAD HAZARD 

From " The Woman's Book of Sport," by J. Parmly Paret. By courtesy of Messrs, 
D. Appleton and Company. Copyrighted 

255 



256 Golf 

He may not, in a hazard, even touch the ground 
with the club in addressing the ball. 

Penalty, Match Play, loss of the hole; Stroke Com- 
petition, two strokes added to the offender's score. {Rule 
XXV.) 

Bushes or long grass may be moved enough to find 
a lost ball, but not more ; sand may be removed from 
a completely covered ball enough to disclose the top 
of it, but not more. (Rule XXII.) 

WATER HAZARDS. — A ball while in water may or 
may not be played, at the discretion of the player. 
If he wishes to play it while it is in the water, and it is 
moving, his stroke must be made at once before cur- 
rent or wind have bettered its position. 

For a delay under such circumstances the penalty is 
loss of the hole in Match Play and two strokes in Stroke 
Competition. {Rule XXVI.) 

A ball lying or lost in a water hazard may be re- 
placed (under penalty of one stroke in both Match and 
Stroke play) by dropping another ball, either in the 
hazard or outside it, as explained below. This is 
true whether the ball is actually in the water or not. 
and whether or not the water is a regular water hazard 
or casual water in a hazard. 

To drop a ball within the hazard under such cir- 
cumstances, the player must so stand as to keep be- 
tween himself and the hole the spot at which the ball 
entered the water. 

To drop a ball behind the hazard, the player must 
so stand as to keep between himself and the hole the 
spot at which the ball crossed the margin of the 
hazard. {Rule XXVII, i.) 



General Rules 257 

If a ball dropped under these circumstances rolls 
into the water, it may be re-dropped. There is no 
penalty. {Rule XXVII, 2.) 

MOVING A BALL ; PLAYING OR INTERFERING WITH 
A BALL IN MOTION. — A ball has moved if it has 
left its original position, however slightly. It is not 
considered to have moved if it oscillates in its original 
position and then remains there. (Definitions, ig.) 

To move the ball in addressing it (either with the 
club, or in a hazard, in taking the stance), is counted 
as a stroke in both Match and Stroke Competition. 
{Rule XII.) 

If a hall is moved by its player, his caddie, or partner, 
in removing loose impediments, or accidentally in any 
other way, the penalty is one stroke in both Match and 
Stroke Play. {Rule XII, i, 3.) 

In a hazard if a ball is moved while removing planks 
or steps, it may be replaced without penalty. {Rule 
XXV.) 

If a ball at rest is moved by an opponent, his club , 
or caddie, the opponent or his side shall lose the hole. 
{Rule XVIII.) The only exception to this is in 
the moving of a lost ball by an opponent or his 
caddie while searching for it. There is no penalty 
for this, but they must replace the ball or be penalized 
by losing the hole, in Match Play, and two strokes 
in Stroke Competition. 

Through the green, if any agency outside a match 
(except the wind) displaces a ball at rest , the player 
may drop a ball as near as possible to where the ball 
lay before being disturbed. For not so dropping a 
hall a player is penalized, in Match Play hy the loss 



258 Golf 

of the hole, and in Stroke Competition, by two strokes, 
{Rule XVII, 3.) 

On the putting green the ball shall be replaced in its 
original position instead of dropped. 

If a ball is moved by an opponent's ball, in singles, 
threesomes, or foursomes, either through the green or 
in a hazard, the opponent has the option of dropping 
a ball where the disturbed ball lay ; this must be done 
before either side has played another stroke. {Rule 
IX, 2.) 

In three-ball, best-ball, and four-ball matches, if a 
ball is moved by any other ball, the ball that was moved 
must be replaced as near as possible to its original 
position. There is no penalty, except for failure to 
so replace it, which is penalized in Match Play, by loss 
of the hole, and in Stroke Competition by disqualifica- 
tion, {Rule II.) 

Except as noted below, a ball in motion may not be 
played. 

The penalty for so doing is, in Match Play, loss of 
the hole in Stroke Competition, two strokes. {Rule 
XIII.) The only conditions under which a moving 
ball may be played without penalty are {a) when a 
teed ball falls off a tee {Rule II) ; {b) when a ball is 
moving in water. {Rule XXVI.) 

If a ball in motion is interfered with by its player, his 
partner, their caddies or clubs {i.e., if it strikes them 
or they interfere in any way with it), in singles, three- 
somes, or foursomes, the penalty, in Match Play, is 
loss of the hole; in Stroke Competition, one stroke. 
{Rule XIX; Stroke Rule IX.) 

In best-ball and four-ball matches, if a ball strikes 



General Rules 259 

or is stopped by its player, his partner, or their caddies 
or clubs, the player playing the ball is disqualified 
for that hole. {Rule VIII.) 

If a ball in motion strikes an opponent, his caddie, 
or clubs, in Match Play, the opponent's side loses a 
hole. {Rule XVIII.) In Stroke Competition the 
ball is played from where it lies and there is no penalty 
except within twenty yards of the hole, where the loss 
is two strokes. {Rules X, XIII, i.) 

In a three-ball match , if a ball strikes, or is stopped 
or moved by an opponent or his caddie or clubs, that 
opponent is penalized in Match Play by losing the 
hole to the offended player. The third player is not 
affected. {Rule V.) 

In best-ball and four-ball matches, if a ball strikes, 
or is stopped, or moved by, an opponent, his caddie 
or clubs, that opponent is penalized, in Match Play, 
by loss of the hole; in Stroke Competition there is no 
penalty, and the ball is played from where it lies. 
{Rule VII.) 

If a ball in motion hits any one not connected with 
the match , or is stopped or deflected by a forecaddie 
or any agency not belonging to the match, it is called 
a rub of the green. There is no penalty, and the ball 
should be played from where it lies. Should the player 
move it, he loses the hole in Match Play, and two strokes 
in Stroke Competition. {Rule XVII, i.) 

If a ball in motion lodges in a moving vehicle , or 
anything in motion, a ball must be dropped as nearly 
as possible to where the moving object was at the 
moment the ball lodged in it. For not so dropping a 
ball J the penalty is loss of the hole in Match Play and 



26o Golf 

loss of two strokes in Stroke Competition. {Rule 
XVII, 2.) 

A ball may be lifted (on the green or in a hazard) if it 
is within a club's length of an opponent's ball, and 
nearer to the hole (singles, threesomes, and four- 
somes). {Rule XVI.) 

If a ball would interfere with, or be of assistance to, 
a player anywhere in a three-ball, best-ball, or four- 
ball match, any player may require that its player 
either lift it or play it, irrespective of the regular order 
of play. {Rule I.) 

PLAYING WRONG BALLS. — Through the green and 
in hazards . — In Match Play, if a player plays an 
opponent's ball, his side loses the hole unless the 
mistake is due to wrong information by the opponent 
or his caddie. If both opponents play each other's 
balls there is no penalty, but the hole is played out 
with the exchanged balls. 

In Stroke Competition there is no penalty for one 
stroke on a competitor's ball, but a player is dis- 
qualified for a second stroke of this kind, except in a 
hazard. There is no penalty for playing the wrong 
ball by mistake in a hazard, provided no stroke is 
played on it beyond the hazard. // played beyond the 
hazard the player is disqualified. {Rule XX; Stroke 
Rule VIII, 2, 3.) 

In best-ball and three-ball matches, a player is 
disquahfied for a hole if he plays a partner's ball and 
the mistake is discovered and the opponents informed 
before they have played a stroke. Under such 
circumstances, the partner is not penalized and 
puts another ball in play by dropping it as near as 



General Rules 261 

possible to the spot where the mistaken stroke was 
made. 

// the opponents play a stroke before the mistake is 
discovered, in Match Play, the oJffe7iding side loses the 
hole; in Stroke Competition, the of ending player is 
disqualified for the hole. {Best Ball Rule IX.) 

If a ball belonging to any one outside the match is 
played by mistake, the player incurs no penalty if he 
discovers the mistake and informs his opponent before 
the latter has played his next stroke. // the opponent 
has played a stroke before the mistake is discovered and 
announced, the of ending player, or his side, loses the 
hole. {Rule XX, 2.) 

On the putting green, a wrong ball played must be 
replaced. There is no penalty. This applies to all 
kinds of matches in both Match and Stroke Play. 

LOST BALLS. — A ball is considered lost when it 
cannot be found in a five minutes' search. {Defi- 
nitions, 20) 

In Match Play, if a ball is lost anywhere but in 
water, casual water, or out-of-bounds, a side loses 
the hole as penalty for losing the ball. If the oppo- 
nent's ball should also be lost, the hole is halved. 
{Rule XXI) Another ball is put in play at the next 
teeing ground. 

In Stroke Competition, another ball is teed from as 
near as possible to the spot of the last stroke. There 
is no penalty. 

If the ball is lost in water (a regular hazard, or casual 
water — whether it lies in the water or not) the penalty 
in both Match and Stroke Play is one stroke. Another 
ball should be dropped within two club lengths of the 



262 Golf 

margin (of casual water) or behind, or in, a regular 
hazard, with the spot at which the ball entered the 
hazard (or the water), between the player and the 
hole. For lack of proper observance of these rules, a 
player loses the hole in Match Play, and two strokes in 
Stroke Competition. {Rule XXVII.) 

If a ball is lost out of bounds , from a stroke made 
anywhere but on the teeing ground, another ball is 
dropped near the place of the last stroke ; if from a 
teeing ground, another ball is teed. {Rule XXIII, i.) 

If a player finds his lost ball on the course, after 
putting another in play, he must resume play on the 
lost ball.. There is no penalty. {Rule XXIII, 2.) 

ADVICE ANB INFORMATION. — The intention and 
spirit of the rules of golf are to throw a player or a side 
upon his or its own judgment as to the choice of clubs, 
the method of striking, or the finer details of the 
direction or aiming of a shot. {Definitions, 2.) A 
player may not ask or receive willingly advice of this 
kind from any one but his own caddie, his partner, 
or partner's caddie, under penalty, in Match Play, of 
losing the hole, and in Stroke Competition, of disquali- 
fication. {Rule IV, I.) A player may not receive 
advice from a forecaddie. 

The general direction toward a hole may be inquired 
of any one, but no person or marker may be placed in 
line with it to aid in aiming a shot. Transgression 
of this rule is penalized in Match Play by loss of the hole; 
in Stroke Competition by loss of two strokes. {Rule 

IV, 4) 

A player may at any time inquire as to his oppo- 
nent's score. {Rule IV, 2.) 



Officials: Outfit 263 

A player may at any time ascertain if the oppo- 
nent's ball is out of bounds and get this information 
before continuing his own play. {Rule XXIII , 3.) 

OFFICIALS. — For ofl&cial competitions, there 
should be a Committee in charge of the Competition. 
This committee is responsible for the condition of the 
course, and the order and time in which competitors 
shall start. The Committee shall receive the scores 
at the end of a competition and be responsible for the 
addition thereon. They shall appoint an Umpire 
and a Referee to officiate during the competition. 

An Umpire is a judge of all facts ; that is, of any- 
thing that happens during the competition. 

A Referee is the responsible authority on the Laws 
or Rules of Golf. {Definitions, 22.) 

Both Umpire and Referee should note all breaches 
of rules during a competition, whether appealed to in 
the matter or not. {Rule XXXV.) 

OUTFIT. — The balls used vary shghtly in size and 
weight, but are about if inches in diameter and usually 
weigh about an ounce and a half. Golf balls are made 
of gutta percha and sometimes have a rubber core. 
The outside is serrated. They cost from $6 to $12 
per dozen. 

Clubs may be bought for from $2 to $3 each. 

Caddie bags . — Leather caddie-bags to hold the 
clubs cost from $5 to $12, and duck bags from $3 to 
$10. 

Shoes . — Hob-nailed or rubber-soled shoes are im- 
portant, as they prevent slipping when taking a shot. 
The cost of a pair is from $5 to $8. 

Hole rims of iron ; $1 each. 



264 Golf 

Flags and disks for marking grounds and holes, 
50 cents to $1. 

HISTORY. — Golf is well termed ^^ The Royal 
and Ancient Game." For several centuries it has 
been the national game of Scotland. As early as 
the fifteenth century it was so popular there that an 
act of Parliament forbade its play because it hindered 
the practice of archery, then used for nationS.1 defense. 
Toward the end of that century indictments were fre- 
quent in Scotland for breaking the Sabbath by playing 
'' Gowff.'' 

Many old tombstones in Scotland recite the achieve- 
ments in golf of the departed, as a famous general's 
victories in battle might be noted. 

Whether or not the game originated in Scotland is 
not known. Old Dutch tiles picture what might 
have been the crude beginnings of the game, but no 
certainty attaches to this. It is known, however, 
that balls for the game were early imported into Scot- 
land from Holland — to such an extent that in 16 18 
this was forbidden as taking too much money out of 
the country. 

Golf balls at that time were made of leather stuffed 
with feathers. The modern development of the game 
is due largely to the discovery of gutta percha and its 
use in balls, which marked an epoch in the history of 
the game. Such balls were in general use about the 
middle of the nineteenth century. 

The popularity of the game outside of Scotland is 
even more recent. In England, although some golf 
organizations are almost as old as those in Scotland, 
the game was not general until the end of the last 



Bibliography 265 

century. It was first played in the English Univer- 
sities about 1880, and became general only in the 
early '90's. Apparently it was about that time that 
women began to play. 

The seriousness of the British golfer's regard for his 
game is shown by the following quotation from a 
modern English work : '^ It is difficult for a whole- 
souled golfer to reconcile the addiction of the royal 
family of Stuart for golf with their unsatisfactory 
character in some other particulars." 

In the United States the game became general in 
the last few years of the nineteenth century. No 
other outdoor game engages actively so many men of 
all ages, and probably no other one agency does so 
much to keep overworked business and professional 
men in health. 

In the United States of America, the United States 
Golf Association is the ruling organization for this 
game, and of this practically all of the larger clubs are 
members. The United States rules are based on those 
of the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews, 
and follow them closely. These official rules are the 
basis of the foregoing classified description of the game. 
Disputed points may be referred to the Executive 
Committee of the United States Golf Association. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Official Handbooks 

Rules of the United States Golf Association, Official Golf Guide. 
Edited by Thomas Bendelow. (New York, Spalding's 
Athletic Library.) 



266 Golf 

Rules of the Game of Golf, as Approved by the Royal and Ancient 
Golf Club of St. Andrews. (St. Andrews, Scotland, W. C. 
Anderson and Son.) 

The Game 

Great Golfers; Their Methods at a Glance. By George W. 
Beldham. (New York, 1904.) 

Advanced Golf; or Hints and Instruction for Progressive Players. 
By James Braid. (London, Methuen and Company, 
1908.) Analysis, discussion and advice for the experienced 
player. 

How to Play Golf. By James Braid and Harry Vardon. Spald- 
ing's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports 
Publishing Company,) 

Golf for Women. By Genevieve Hecker (Mrs. Charles F. Stout). 
(New York, Baker and Taylor Company, 1904.) 

Modern Golf. By Harold H. Hilton. (New York, Outing 
Publishing Company.) 

Golf for the Late Beginner. By Henry Hughes. (New York, 
McBride, Nast and Company, 1913.) 

The New Book of Golf. Edited by Horatio Gordon Hutchin- 
son, with contributions from Mrs. Ross (nee Miss May 
Hazlet), Bernard Darwin, James Sherlock, A. C. M. 
Croome, and C. H. Hutchinson. (New York, Longmans, 
Green and Company, 191 2.) A full treatise on the game 
from the English viewpoint. 

The Game of Golf. By WilUam Park, Jr. (New York, Long- 
mans, Green and Company, 1896.) 

Pro and Con of Golf. By Alexander Hamilton Re veil. (Chi- 
cago, Rand, McNally and Company, 191 5.) 

Lessons in Golf. By Alexander Smith. (New York, Arthur 
Portow, 1907.) 

Travers^ Golf Book. By Jerome Dunstan Travers. (New 
York, The Macmillaij Company, 1913.) Forty-eight illus- 
trations. 

Practical Golf. By Walter J. Travis. (New York and Lon- 
don, Harper & Brothers, 1909.) Illustrations for different 
parts of different strokes, clubs, Ues, etc. 



Glossary 267 

How to Learn Golf. By P. A. Vaille. (New York, Spalding's 
Athletic Library, 191 5.) 

The Complete Golfer. By Harry Vardoii. (New York, Mc- 
Clure, Phillips & Company, 1907.) With sixty-six 
illustrations. 

How to Play Golf. By Harry Vardon. (Philadelphia, G. W. 
Jacobs & Co., 191 2.) 

Golf for Beginners — and Others. By Marshall Whitlatch. 
(New York, Outing PubHshing Company, 1910.) Care- 
ful analysis of strokes, with illustrations looking down 
on player (from above him) on a diagrammed field. A 
book of detailed instructions for the different strokes and 
sticks. 

The Links 

Plans of Twelve Leading Golf Links. By Anderson. (Lon- 
don, Anderson, Anderson and Anderson, Limited, 1902.) 

Lawns, Golf Courses, Polo Fields, and How to Treat Them. 
By Samuel Alfred Cunningham. (New York, the Coe- 
Mortimer Company, 1914.) 

The Golf Courses of the British Isles. By Bernard Darwin. 
(London, Duckworth and Company, 1910.) Illustrated 
by Harry Rountree. A book of delightful literary 
quality, especially suitable for a gift to a golf lover. Val- 
uable suggestions on play, but especially on golf archi- 
tecture. Colored illustrations. 

The Seeding and Preservation of Golf Links. By Thorburn. 
(New York, J. M. Thorburn Company, 1908.) 

GLOSSARY 

Addressing the ball. Movements of a player and club 

preparatory to a stroke. 

Approach. The strokes that place a ball on the putting green. 

Best ball. The ball that is holed in the fewest number of 

strokes. 

Bisque. A handicap stroke taken at any hole the player 

prefers. 



268 Golf 

Bogey. An imaginary score for a course, usually established 
by a Committee. It represents the number of strokes that 
would be taken for each hole by an average player. 

Brassey. a heavy wooden club, shod with brass. 

Bunker. A natural or artificial obstruction or hazard, such 
as a sand pit, or embankment of earth. 

Bye. Hole remaining unplayed after a match is won. 

Caddie. Boy who carries golf sticks. 

Casual water. Water not permanently on the course, in- 
cluding ice. 

Cleek. Iron-headed playing club. 

Club. The special stick or implement with which the ball is 
played. 

Dead. In golf a ball is dead when it lies where it falls with- 
out rolling. Also when it lies in relation to the hole so 
that there can be no doubt of its being holed out in the 
next stroke. 

DoRMiE. Score of a player when he cannot lose the game, but 
may be tied. 

Drive. Any stroke with any club, made with a full swing. 
The first shot from the teeing ground is called a drive. 

Drop-ball. A ball put in play by dropping. The rules pre- 
scribe that it must be dropped over the shoulder when 
standing erect, facing the next hole. 

Fore. A call intended to warn players in advance on a course 
that a ball is coming. The word is an abbreviation of 
Before. It is called just before or after a stroke. 

Face. That side of the head of a club that comes in contact 
with the ball. 

Fluke. A successful but unpremeditated play. 

Follow-through. The continued movement of a club after 
it has hit the ball. 

Forecaddie. Caddie, who precedes a player and locates the 
baU. 

Four-ball match. A game in which each of four players 
competes against each other ; each playing his own ball. 

Foursome. A game in which two players compete against 
an opposing pair, each side playing one ball. 



Glossary 269 

Green. A term applied both to an entire golf course, and to 

the putting green. 
Halved. When each player has taken the same number of 

strokes to make a hole, the hole is said to be halved. 
Hazard. Any obstruction to the path of the ball except 

casual water, bare patches, sheep tracks, snow, ice or sand 

sprinkled on grass for its preservation. Hazards include 

bunker, water, ditch, bush, sand, path or road. 
Head. That portion of a club which is attached to the shaft 

and which comes in contact with the ball in a stroke. 
Heel. That portion of the hitting surface of a club that is 

nearest the shaft. 
Hole. The hole or cup in the putting green into which the 

balls are played. 
Hole out. To play the ball into the hole on the putting 

green. 
Holes up. The number of holes that one player has to his 

credit over the score of an opponent. 
Honor. Ttie privilege of driving first from teeing ground. 
Jigger. An iron club between a mid-iron and mashie. 
Iron. An iron-headed club. 

Lie. Position of the ball on the course, in relation to ob- 
structions, etc. 
Like. The stroke that will equalize the number played by 

two competitors. 
Links. The grounds or course on which the game of golf is 

played. 
LoET. To lift a ball in the air with a stroke; such a ball is 

said to be lofted. The angle at which the face of a club 

is laid back is called the loft of the club. 
Mashie. Iron-headed club, with deep face. 
Match. In golf a game is called a match ; also the players 

competing against each other in a game. 
Match play. Game in which the number of holes won 

determines the winner. 
Medal play. Another name for Stroke Competition. A 

game in which the total number of strokes made deter- 
mines the winner. 



270 Golf 

Mid-iron. Iron-headed club ; the face has less pitch than a 

mashie. 
Niblick. Iron club with small head. 
Odd. The stroke that will make one's score one stroke more 

than an opponent's number of strokes. 
Par. An ideal score for a hole or course. 
Putt. To play short strokes on the putting green; holing 

out. 
Putter. Club with iron or wooden head used mostly for 

short strokes on the putting green. 
Putting green. Level, grass-covered turf around a hole; 

technically, within twenty yards of the hole. 
Round. Once over the course. 
Run. a ball is said to run when4t skims the ground instead 

of being lofted. The term also denotes the distance a 

ball rolls after striking the ground; this is called the 

run of the drive. 
Rub or the green. Term used when a ball in motion strikes 

a forecaddie or is deflected by any other agency not of 

the match. The ball is played next from where it lies. 

There is no penalty except in holing out. 
ScLAFF. To hit the earth with a club before the ball is struck. 
Scratch man. One who receives no handicap. 
Shaft. The handle of a club, — the part which is grasped 

by the player, and to which the head is attached. 
Single. A game in either Match Play or Stroke Competi- 
tion in which one person is pitted against one other. 
Slice. A stroke that sends the ball to the right instead of 

straight ahead. 
Sole. That side of the head of a club that rests on the ground 

when addressing the ball. 
Stance. The position of a player's feet before swinging at the 

ball. Its relation to the ball and the direction of the 

hole have an important effect on the stroke. 
Stroke play. A game in which that competitor wins who 

has taken the fewest strokes to complete the course. 
Stymie. A lie of the balls on a putting green, in which an 

opponent's ball intervenes between a player's ball and 



Glossary 271 

the hole, and is more than six inches away from the 

player's ball. 
Tee. The elevation, usually a pinch of sand, on top of which 

the ball is placed for a drive. The ball is usually teed 

for the first stroke toward a hole. 
Teeing ground. Ground from which the first stroke must 

be taken for each hole. 
Top the ball. To hit the ball on its upper part. 
Three-ball match. A game in which each competitor plays 

against two others, each playing his own ball. 
Threesome. A game in which one player competes against 

an opposing pair, who play one ball between them. 
Undercut. To hit the ball from below upward. A ball 

should rise high from such a stroke and fall dead after it. 



HANDBALL 



HANDBALL 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Handball is a 

game that calls for strenuous, all-over muscular exer- 
cise, and great skill and quickness. It is played on an 
outdoor or indoor court having a front and side walls 
and smooth floor. 

The object of the game is to bat a small rubber or 
leather-covered ball with the open hand toward a 
wall, from which it will rebound, and to which it will 
be returned by an opposing player or players. Failure 
to bat the ball back to the wall is a miss. The score 
is made, as in tennis, only by the player who serves, 
or puts the ball in play ; he scores on the opponent's 
failures. 

COURTS. — INDOOR COURT : DIMENSIONS. — A 
regulation court is the shape of a rectangular room 60 
feet long and 24^ feet wide. The front wall should be 
35 feet high ; the side walls, where they meet the front 
wall are of the same height (35 feet) but slope down- 
ward toward the rear of the court, where they may be 
from 10 to 30 feet high. The rear wall should be 
the height of the side walls where they join it — that 
is, 10 to 30 feet high, and of the same width as the 
front wall, 24I feet. The walls may be made of 
wood, cement, or marble. The lighting should be 
from a skylight, so that it will be diffused. 

ACE LINE. — Thirty feet from the front wall, and 
parallel to it, a line is drawn across the floor, called the 

27s 



276 Handball 

ace line. A served ball, after hitting the front wall, 
must rebound from the floor beyond this ace line — • 
that is, on the farther side of the ace line from the 
wall. 

INNER LINE. — Parallel to the ace line, and 2 feet 
nearer the front wall, a second line is drawn. In 
serving the ball, a server must stand in the space 
.between the inner line and the ace line. 

TELL BOARD. — A board 6 inches high (wide) with 
its upper edge beveled, is placed on edge at the bottom 
of the front wall. For a ball to strike the upper edge 
of the tell board is equivalent to striking the floor. 
In other words, a ball, to be fair, must strike the wall 
at least 6 inches above the floor. 

OUTDOOR COURTS often consist of merely a 
front wall and flooring ; but the better ones are 
made of concrete or masonry and have side walls. 
Flooring should be of the best white pine, well sup- 
ported by beams closely laid so as to give the proper 
resiliency. 

BALLS. — The regulation handball differs slightly 
under American and Gaelic rules. The American 
balls are made both of rubber and leather. The speci- 
fications for the balls of the Amateur Athletic Union 
of America call for a ball measuring i| inches in 
diameter, with a weight of if ounces. 

The Irish official handball is smaller and heavier 
than that of America and is generally made of rubber. 
The official ball called for by the Gaelic Athletic 
Association of Ireland is hard, covered with sheep- 
skin or any other leather, and is not less than i J 
ounces nor more than if ounces in weight. 



Serving 277 

PLAYERS. — The game may be played by two or 
four players at once, called respectively singles and 
doubles. 

In a game of singles, one player is pitted against an 
opponent. In doubles, two players compete against 
an opposing pair. 

One player (or pair) acts as server, and puts the ball in 
play ; they score on the opponent's failures to properly 
return the ball. The opponent or opponents are re- 
ceivers, and must return the ball according to rules. 

HITTING THE BALL. — The ball must always 
be played with the hand — never with the foot or 
any other part of the person. 

The proper way to strike the ball is to make a cup 
with the palm and fingers, and strike with an under- 
hand swing of the arm, hitting the ball not squarely 
with the palm, but between the fingers and the palm, 
at about the third joints of the fingers, counting from 
the tips inw^ard. 

Either hand may be used, but never both at once. 

THE GAME : SINGLES. — START. — The choice 
of position is given to the player who wins a toss of a 
coin. ^ The winner may elect to serve the ball or to 
receive. 

SERVING. — Serving is putting the ball in play. 

The server must stand for serving in the two-foot 
space between the ace line and the inner line, but on 
either the right or left side of the court, as he may 
choose. 

The server, while serving, must not step twice in 
succession over the inner line. For this he loses the 
hand (changes places with the receiver) . 



278 Handball 

To serve the ball, the player allows it to drop to the 
floor, and when it has rebounded waist high, strikes 
it with his hand against the front ball, so it will rebound 
from the floor beyond the ace line ; that is, from the 
side of the ace line farther from the wall. 

If a served ball touches the floor inside the ace line 
(between that line and the front wall), it is called a 
short ball. The receiver may or may not play on it, 
as he chooses. A server loses his hand (his turn as 
server) if he serves three short balls in succession. 
He may serve any number of them with full-served 
balls in between. 

A served ball must hit the front wall before it hits 
either side wall, roof, or floor. To fail in this means 
loss of hand to the server. 

The served ball is sometimes so played that after 
striking the front wall, it will rebound from a side or 
back wall before touching the floor behind the ace 
line. This is not only permissible, but requires very 
skillful work from both server and receiver. 

A server scores an ace every time that he properly 
sends the ball to any part of the court beyond the ace 
line and the receiver fails to return it to the front wall. 

Every time the receiver returns the ball to the front 
wall, the server must recover it {i.e., hit it himself 
again to the wall) either on the fly or on a first bound 
from the floor, or his hand is out and he must exchange 
places with the receiver. 

RECEIVING. — After the ball has been served, the 
opponent, who now receives the ball may not hit it 
until it has bounded from the floor, but he must hit 
it when it has bounded once, or his failure scores an 



General Rules 279 

ace for the server. The receiver may strike it with 
either hand and should try to so hit it that it will re- 
bound from the front wall to any spot on the floor, 
on either side of the ace line ; but it is to his interest 
that it should strike the floor as far as possible from 
the server. The latter now attempts to play the ball 
back to the front wall before or after the ball has 
bounded once from the floor. This goes on until one 
or the other fouls, or fails to knock the ball back to the 
front wall. 

If a served ball drops within the rectangle formed by 
the ace line, side walls, and front wall, the receiver, if 
he so desire, is at liberty to play the ball after its 
rebound ; but he is not obliged to do so, and his 
failure to do so does not score an ace for the server. 

If the receiver fails to send the ball back to the front 
wall, the miss counts as a point, or an ace, for the 
server. If the server misses, he is out, termed hand 
out. The receiver then becomes the server and the 
former server receives. 

GENERAL RULES AND POINTS OF PLAY. 
— HINDERS. — Each player must attempt to keep 
out of the way of an opponent when that opponent 
is running toward, or about to play, the ball. Any 
such interference, if unintentional, is termed a hinder, 
and the ball must be served again. If such inter- 
ference is intentional, a foul is called by the Referee. 
If the server interferes intentionally, he is out; but 
if the receiver intentionally interferes, a point (ace) 
is awarded to the server. 

A server after having been retired must be given 
time to prepare to receive the ball ; in other words, the 



28o Handball 

incoming server may not jump to place, serve the ball, 
and catch unawares the outgoing server, who is about 
to receive. 
FOULS are (a) To use the foot to strike the ball. 

(b) To strike the ball with both hands. 

(c) To touch the ball twice in succession when 
batting it. 

(d) To stop a ball going to the front wall. 

If any one of the above is committed by the server, 
the penalty is loss of hand ; that is, hand out or end 
of opportunity to serve ; if committed by the receiver, 
a point, or ace is awarded to the server. 

DOUBLES. — When partners play against an oppos- 
ing pair, the partner who does not serve usually 
stands next to one of the receivers, midway between 
the front wall and the ace line, both players turning 
their backs to the left wall. The server first stands 
in the same position as does the server in singles, and 
his opponent farther back in the court. 

In addition, the following hinders (fouls) apply to 
doubles : 

(a) If a served ball strikes the server's partner 
(bounding from or touching him), it is a hinder. 
Penalty, loss of hand, 

(b) If a server's partner interferes with the ball 
before it is played by either of the two opposing 
players, it is a hinder. Penalty, loss of hand, 

(c) If a receiver (recoverer of serving) strikes the 
ball so that it touch his partner, it is a foul (hinder). 
Penalty, a point awarded to the receiving side. 

(d) If a receiver strikes either of his opponents 
with the ball, it is a hinder. // intentional, at the 



Officials 281 

discretion of the Rejeree^ an ace may be awarded to 
the receiving side. 

A ball is out of play after a hinder and must be 
again served. 

SCORE. — The serving side scores an ace (one 
point) every time the opponents fail to return a 
properly served ball to the front wall after one bound 
on the floor. 

An ace is also awarded in one or two instances for 
fouls as noted. 

According to the rules of the American Athletic 
Union for singles, the player who first makes 21 aces 
wins a game ; the number of games that make up a 
set is determined by a Committee of the Union. 
Under GaeHc rules, 15 aces make a game. 

OFFICIALS. —A Referee and a Scorer officiate. 

THE REFEREE decides upon all questions of service, 
and return of the ball ; in other words, he decides 
whether or not the ball struck in the proper rectangle 
or court on the floor, struck the proper wall, or was 
hit properly. He decides when a point, termed an 
ace, is made, and when the player who is serving is 
out, termed hand out. 

THE SCORER keeps track of the number of aces 
made, has co-jurisdiction with the Referee in deciding 
hinders (interference with the progress of the ball) 
and fouls (failure to return the ball to the front wall, 
or a transgression of rules) . 

The Referee, when appealed to, should decide 
promptly and his decision is final. To disobey the 
order of a Referee or Scorer is punishable by disqual- 
ification. 



282 Handball 

OUTFIT. — BALL. — Rubber handballs cost 35 
cents and leather-covered balls cost from fifty cents 
to $1 each. 

DRESS. — Regulation gymnasium dress, or, for men, 
running costume, is worn. Both men and women 
should wear rubber-soled gymnasium shoes. Special 
gloves may be worn, and cost from 75 cents to $3. 

HISTORY. — The hitting of a ball against a wall 
is an instinctive form of play, but just when or where 
this became formulated into a game with rules is not 
definitely known. The game of Handball, as known 
in America, was introduced from Ireland about 1840. 
It is generally considered indigenous to Ireland, where 
it has the importance of a national game. 

In England the game is called '' Fives " and played 
in two forms with somewhat more elaborate rules. 
There is a plain court or Rugby game, and an Eton 
game played in a court having a step and a projection 
on one side making a " pepper box." This irregular 
court game originated between certain of the Eton 
buildings, the accident of the architectural obstruc- 
tions resulting in a distinctive game. 

The American game follows closely the Irish in 
form. The American rules are used in the directions 
given herewith. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Handball and How to Play It. By Michael Egan. (New York, 
Spalding Athletic American Sports Publishing Company.) 

Court Games. By Frederick R. Toombs. New York, Spald- 
ing's Athletic Library. (American Sports PubHshing Com- 
pany.) 



Glossary 283 

Fives. See the Encydopcedia of Sport. Edited by The 
Earl of Suffolk and Berkshire. (Philadelphia, J. B. 
Lippincott and Company.) 



GLOSSARY 

Ace. The term for point scored. 

Court. Enclosure in which the game is played. 

Doubles. Game in which two pairs of players are pitted 

against each other. 
Foul. A breach of rules. 
Hand-out. Term signifying that server has lost privilege of 

serving, and must take his turn as receiver. 
Hinder. A misplay, which interferes with the progress of 

the ball, as by hitting the person of a player. 
Receiver. One who is prepared to bat or return a served 

baU. 
Recovery. Successful return of the ball by the receiver. 
Ser\tng. Act of striking the ball, after allowing it to bound 

out of one's hand, at the beginning of a game or after 

hand-out. 
Short ball. A served ball that strikes the floor within the 

ace line. 
Singles. Game in which only one player competes against 

another. 
Tell board. Six-inch board at base of front wall. A ball 

hitting the top of this board is considered to have hit the 

floor, and is a foul. 



ICE HOCKEY 



ICE HOCKEY 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Ice hockey is 
probably the most popular and widely used of skating 
games, particularly in Canada and the northern 
United States. In the large cities if is played in 
rinks, but may also be played on the open ice. 

The game is "usually played by two opposing teams 
of 6 or 7 players each, whose object is to put 
through the opponents' goal a small cyhndrical piece 
of vulcanized rubber called a puck. The puck is 
played entirely by long slender sticks, flattened out 
into a blade at the end and set at an angle to the 
handle. It is against the rules to play upon the 
puck in any other way, though it may be blocked 
by the body, but not propelled by it in any way. 

To the spectator, the game is a rapid series of dashes 
from one end of the rink to the other, with skillful 
shots of the puck and occasional scrimmages. 

One point is scored for a team each time it puts the 
puck through its opponents' goal posts from the front. 
The game is played in two halves of 20 minutes each 
with a rest of 10 minutes between ; the team wins 
which has scored the larger number of goals at the end 
of the second half. The teams change goals for the 
second half, guarding the goal which they previously 
attacked. 

The supreme ofl&cial is the Referee who is assisted 
by an Assistant Referee and two Goal Umpires, who 

287 



288 Ice Hockey 

decide whether or not the puck has gone through the 
goals; a Penalty Timekeeper, who keeps time for 
players who are penalized for infringement of rules by 
being expelled temporarily from the game; and two 
Timekeepers who keep record of the actual playing 
time and determine when a half is concluded. Time 
lost for fouls, accidents, or any other delay that puts 
the puck out of play is deducted in estimating the 
time. The Referee blows his whistle whenever the 
game is to be suspended in this way and again sounds 
the whistle or calls play when it is to be resumed. 
The puck is put in play by a method called facing, 
that is, it is thrown on the ice between the sticks of 
two opposing players, who try each to get it toward 
his own goal on the Referee's signal to play. 

Ice hockey in its general formation and rules is very 
similar to Field Hockey and bears a strong resemblance 
to Lacrosse. In all of these games no tackling is 
allowed, the only means of attacking an opponent 
being (i) to block him by getting in his way and com- 
pelling him to dodge; (2) to body-check him by a 
shove with a shoulder or hip from the front or side, 
never from the rear ; or (3) to check his stick by hit- 
ting it with one's own. 

The rules embodied in the following directions for 
the game are those of the American Amateur Hockey 
League. 

FIELD. — Hockey is played on the ice ; in the 
larger cities, in rinks which are padded around the 
edges. The rink must be at least 112 feet long by 58 
feet wide. Two goal posts are erected at either end 
of the rink, at least 10 feet from the edge of the ice. 



Teams 289 

The distance between goals is not specified. The 
goal posts must be firmly upright, measure 4 feet high, 
and be placed 6 feet apart. Attached to these goal 
posts is a net that must be 4 feet high and 6 feet wide. 
This net is sloped downward and backward to a level 
with the ice and captures the ball should it go through 
the posts. No ball scores that goes past the posts 
above their tallest point. 

Should a post or net become displaced or broken 
during a game, the Referee must sound his whistle 
to suspend the game until the damage is repaired. 

TEAMS. — Each team consists of 7 players who 
face each other from opposite halves of the field. 
Their positions are, respectively, the goal keeper, point, 
cover point, right and left wing, right and left center. 
The right center is called the rover. 

Canadian teams now number six players, right 
center having been dropped. 

POSITION OF PLAYERS. — The position of goal 
keeper is close to the goal. The point stands directly 
in front of him, and at some distance ; the cover 
point still farther in front of the point ; the right and 
left centers continue the line forward to near the center 
of the field ; the right and left wings stand on either 
side respectively at a point about midway between the 
right and left centers. 

The goal keeper, point, and cover point, are called 
the defense players of a team. The other four players 
are the forwards, the center and wings being particu- 
larly charged with attack play on the opponents' goal. 

The positions indicated are taken by the players 
whenever the puck is faced at the center of the field. 



290 



Ice Hockey 



It is needless to say that they shift their positions very 
rapidly through the game and are not restricted to 



J — ■■ — - Minimum 58 Ft.- 



(S— 



R.Wing 



® 

LWing 



O 



Goaf 

_6a— -O 

•Goal -Tender 

Point 

# 



Cover Point 



R.Centre (Rover) 



L. Centre 



L. Centre 

® 

R.Centre (Rover) 

(§) 

Cover Point 



-Point 



Goal 



Goal-Tender 



-9 



LWing 



® 

R.Wihg 



OPENING FORMATION OF TEAMS IN ICE HOCKEY 



any given territory, the only rule limiting their play 
being the regulations for offside play described under 
" Rules and Points of Play." 



Duties of Players 291 

SUBSTITUTES. — No change of players may be 
made after a match begins, except for accident or 
injury. 

Should a player be injured during the first half of 
a game, his Captain may put in a substitute. Should 
such injury occur during the second half of a game, 
the Captain of the opposing team has the option of 
dropping a player to equalize the teams, or of allowing 
his opponents to put in a substitute. 

Prior to a match game, the Secretary of each Club 
must file with the Secretary of the League conducting 
the match a list of the players of his team. Prior 
to the opening of a game the Captain of a contesting 
team must hand to the Referee the names of the 
players in his team on forms supplied by the Secretary 
of the League. No player may join in a match game 
who has been a member of a club for less than thirty 
days before the game, or who does not meet all of the 
requirements as to amateur standing. 

Each team elects one of its own members to act 
as Captain. His duties are described under '^ Offi- 
cials." 

DUTIES OF PLAYERS : GOAL KEEPER. — The goal 
keeper is responsible for preventing the passage of the 
puck through the goal. He may block the puck with 
any part of his body, skates, or stick, but he may not 
grasp or throw it. Should he block it with his hand, 
he must immediately open the hand to let it drop at 
his feet. The goal keeper usually stops more shots 
with his body than with his stick. He may not lie, 
kneel, or sit on the ice during a game, but must main- 
tain a standing position. 



292 Ice Hockey 

It is dangerous for a goal keeper to leave the goal, 
but he may have to do so on occasion, when the point 
should immediately fill his place. In defending the 
goal, should the puck be in front of it, the goal keeper 
should keep to the center. Should the puck be to 
the right or left, he will find it good policy to keep to 
that side, with his body close to the goal post. After 
stopping the puck, the goal keeper should endeavor 
at once to get it away from the vicinity of the goal 
either by playing it to one side or by lifting it toward 
the opponents' goal. It is well in this latter play to 
advance it to his defense, or forward players, and let 
them make the longer shots with it. 

A goal keeper's equipment may consist of padded 
clothing, but he may not wear any garment large 
enough to help him by its size in checking the puck. 
A goal keeper often wears shin guards, gloves, and 
other padded clothes for protection from shots. A 
short-handled stick with long blade is best for his 
position, and his skates should not be too sharply 
pointed as he will need to move around easily and 
quickly from one position to another. 

POINT. — The point is a defense player. His posi- 
tion should be directly in front of the goal tender and 
some distance from him and back of the cover point. 
It is unwise for the point and cover point to be too close 
together, as it lessens the opposition to be met by 
opposing players as they approach the goal. The 
point's position is of great importance in protecting 
the goal and he should stay more closely near his 
assigned position than any other player, except the 
goal keeper. Should the goal keeper need to leave his 



The Game 293 

place, the point should immediately fall back to that 
position. 

COVER POINT. — This player is also essentially a 
defense player, but somewhat freer in his range of 
movement than the point. He should keep close to 
his position, if the puck is at his end, especially early 
in the game. He may play up toward the center 
when the puck is near the opponents' goal, so as to be 
ready to receive it if shot out by his own forwards. 
He may possibly shoot either goal from this position ; 
or, toward the end of the game, when his own forwards 
are tired, may help them by more advanced, aggressive 
work toward the opponents' goal. 

The cover point's position is a good one for Captain 
of the team, as he is in touch with both the defense and 
forward players, whom he may need to coach. 

The stick used by the cover point should have a long 
handle to increase his reach ; it should be rather heavy, 
to enable him to make long shots if necessary, and 
should have a thin blade for raising the puck. 

FORWARDS. — The four forward players, known as 
right and left wing and right and left center, are the 
attack players of a team. The center should pass the 
puck, when it is put in play, at the center of the field. 
The right center, or rover, is a very free player in the 
range of his activities. Although he is essentially an 
attack man, he must help any part of his team needing 
it, whether attack or defense. 

CAPTAIN. — Each team elects a Captain. His 
duties are summarized under '' Officials." 

THE GAME. — START. — The puck is put in 
play by a method called facing. This consists in its 



294 Ice Hockey 

being placed on the ice by the Referee between the 
sticks of two opposing players, who, on the Referee's 
signal to play, try each to get possession of it or to 
send it to other players of his team. 

The puck is faced in this way in the center of the 
field at the beginning of each half and after each goal 
is scored. It is similarly faced at other times in the 
game as follows : 

After going out of bounds or off the ice behind a goal 
line, the puck is brought by the Referee to five yards 
within the goal line and at right angles to it, opposite 
the place at which it went out, unless that should be 
less than five yards from the nearest goal post, when 
it should be kept out to that distance. It is cus- 
tomary to call the two nearest opponents to face for 
the puck. Should the puck go off the ice on a side, it 
is similarly brought in by the Referee and faced five 
yards within the side line and at right angles to it. 

After a foul, the puck may, at the discretion of the 
Referee, or at the request of the Captain of the 
offended team, be taken back to the point at which it 
was last played previous to the foul, and there faced. 

The Referee has power to face the puck at any time 
or place he may deem necessary, and it is in order, 
though not absolutely necessary, to start the play 
in this way whenever play is resumed after a stoppage. 

The puck is always within play between the Ref- 
eree's signals of stop and start, and such intervals of 
time are deducted by the Timekeepers in estimating 
the length of the halves. 

GENERAL RULES AND POINTS OF PLAY. — The 
spirit of play in ice hockey is that the game shall be 



296 Ice Hockey 

one of skill with the sticks, and all rules are designed 
to secure this character of game. 

The puck is advanced mostly by shoving or sliding 
it over the ice by means of the sticks, or occasionally 
by lifting it with the sticks. It is not permissible 
to kick the puck, to catch or throw it with the hand, 
or to propel it in any way by the skates or any part 
of the body. Its passage, however, may be blocked 
by any part of the body, which means that it is simply 
brought to a standstill, dropping dead to the ice 
at that point. 

Permissible methods for defense in hockey consist 
(i) in blocking an opponent (getting in front of an 
advancing player so that he has to dodge or go 
around) ; or (2) blocking the puck and getting pos- 
session of it with one's stick ; (3) checking the oppo- 
nent's stick by hitting it with one's own, or (4) body- 
checking an opponent, which consists in shoving him 
with the hip or shoulder from the front or side, never 
from the rear. 

It is quite usual for a player who has not an oppor- 
tunity to pass the puck to a team-mate to play it so 
that it will carom against the side of the rink, so avoid- 
ing a blocking player and enabling the player who shot 
it to pick it up again after passing his antagonist. 

In passing the puck from one player to another, it 
should be remembered that a skating player is advanc- 
ing rapidly and the puck should be aimed at some 
distance in front of him, not directly at him. For 
such passing it is better to slide the puck than to lift 
it, as the player receiving it is then better able to stop 
it. Lifting is advisable in trying to pass an opponent 



General Rules and Points of Play 297 

and is very effective in sjiooting a goal, especially if 
the puck is aimed at al)out the height of a goal keeper's 
knee. 

Lifting is done quite similarly to lofting in golf. 
The blade of the stick is placed below the lower half 
of the puck, the broad surface of the blade directed 
upward. 

It IS as a rule easier to get up speed in a bent posi- 
tion than when upright. 

It is permissible to check the stick of an opponent 
by hitting it with one's own. Should this be done, a 
heavy blow should be given, as a light knock is in- 
effective. 

It is permissible to body-check an opponent as in 
Field Hockey and Lacrosse. Body-checking consists 
in shoving the opponent with one's shoulder or hip, 
always from the front or side. It is a foul to do this 
from the rear. Body-checking is rather exhausting 
to the player doing it, and is not advised for forwards 
who need their strength for dashes toward an oppo- 
nent's goal. 

The advisability of body-checking, on the ice espe- 
cially, is rather questionable, and there would seem 
little doubt that a cleaner, higher type of play, testing 
more truly the skill of opponents, obtains without it. 
On this point the following may be quoted from Mr. 
Arthur Farrell's ''How to Play Ice Hockey." 

^^This practice of body checking is permissible, and, to a 
certain degree, scientific, but it is questionable whether it be 
not a less noble way of overcoming a dangerous opponent, than 
by expert stick handling, or by some gentler means. It can- 
not be said to be directly in accordance with the strictest, the 



298 Ice Hockey 

highest sense of polished, fair, scientific play. It certainly is a 
feat, difficult of accomplishment, to stop a man who is rush- 
ing towards you with the speed of an express train, and upset 
him without the slightest injury to yourself, but is this the 
fairest way of defending your flags? It savors too much of 
roughness, and can be the cause of a serious accident, because 
a fall on the ice at any time is usually painful and dangerous 
enough, without any additional impetus from without. If it 
is allowable, it is most unfair to ^body' a man into the side of 
the rink." 

No body-checking or charging may be done from 
the rear and no other personal interference is allowed, 
such as tripping, collaring, kicking, pushing, or cross- 
checking. By cross-checking is meant holding one's 
stick horizontally as a means of blocking a player. 
For such personal interference a player may be penal- 
ized by the Referee's ruling him off the ice for any 
time at his discretion. 

To receive a body-check a player should endeavor to 
have his feet as firmly placed as possible, but should 
somewhat relax the upper part of the body to break 
the force of the impact. 

Mass play for concentrated interference, as in the 
flying wedge in football, is contrary to the spirit and 
rules of hockey, as it cannot be done without infring- 
ing the rule against offside play, which prevents a 
player from obstructing an opponent in advance of 
the puck. 

The puck should be propelled from the near end of 
the blade, not from the farther tip, as the former gives 
a much stronger blow and surer aim. 

The stick should be grasped in both hands. A right- 
handed player should have his right hand advanced 



Offside Play 299 

down the stick and the left holding the butt end, the 
palms directed inward. A left-handed player should 
grasp the stick in reverse manner. 

Sticks may not be raised above shoulder height, 
except in lifting the puck. 

OFFSroE PLAY. — The only rule limiting the part 
of the ground at which a player may play on the puck 
is that governing what is called offside play. A 
player must keep on his own side of the puck, that is, 
between the puck and his own goal. In other words, 
he is said to be offside and may not play on the puck, 
when the puck is behind him as he faces the opponent's 
goal, if it is being played by any member of his own 
team. No player may, therefore, advance beyond 
the puck toward the opponent's goal, to receive a pass 
from one of his own team. 

As soon as an opponent touches a puck that is be- 
hind a player, or is touched by it in any way, even 
as to his clothing or skates, an offside player is put 
onside ; that is, he is then at liberty to play the puck. 
This is true whether the opponent be behind him or 
not. It is also put on-side when one of his own team 
advances in front of him ; that is, gets nearer to the 
opponent's goal than himself, carrying the puck with 
him, or after he, the advancing player, has played it. 

Any player who is offside may not interfere with an 
opponent any more than he may play the puck, until 
the latter has been played or touched by an opponent 
or one of his own side has passed him. 

The only exception to this offside play is for a 
defending team, when the puck rebounds from its 
goal keeper's body. Under such circumstances, any 



300 Ice Hockey 

player between the puck and the goal is at liberty to 
play on it. 

The penalty for off-side play consists in the puck's 
being brought back and faced at the point where it 
was last played before the offense occurred. The 
Referee or his assistant make all such rulings as to 
offside plays and their penalties. 

Most goals are scored on a rush, not from a scrim- 
mage. Long shots, or those taken at a wide angle 
from the goal, are most liable to be unsuccessful. A 
shot that lifts the puck is apt to be a successful one, 
especially if it raises the puck to about the height of 
the goal keeper's knee. 

FOULS. — STICKS. — It is a foul to lift a stick 
higher than the shoulder, except in lifting the puck. 
It is a foul to throw one's stick, to hit or trip an oppo- 
nent with it, or to use it for cross-checking. 

Any player who loses his stick through the game 
must leave the ice until he secures another. 

PLAYERS. — Body-checking, or any form of charging 
from behind, is a foul. It is also a foul to trip, kick, 
collar, push, cross-check, or hold with the hand or stick 
any player. 

No player may interfere in any way with an oppo- 
nent who is not playing the puck. 

it is a foul for any player to use profane or abusive 
language to any other player or to an official. 

It is a foul for the goal keeper to sit, lie or kneel 
on the ice during the game; he must maintain a 
standing position. 

PUCK. — It is a foul to catch or throw the puck 
with the hand, to carry it with any part of the body 



Fouls : Score 301 

or to knock (propel) it by any part of the body. In 
other words, the play on the puck must be entirely 
with the stick. It is permissible to block the puck 
with the skates, stick, or any part of the body, but 
in this case it may not be grasped or carried. 

PENALTIES. — The penalty for a foul consists in the 
offending player's being ruled off the ice for the entire 
match or for any part of it, at the discretion of the 
Referee. It is customary for the Referee to specify 
a rather short interval (as ten or fifteen minutes) 
for which a player is to be thus penalized. The 
Penalty Timekeeper keeps a record of this trans- 
action and notifies the offending player when he may 
return to the game. 

For OFFSIDE PLAY, the penalty consists in returning 
the puck to the point from which it was last played 
before the foul occurred and there having it faced. 

Should a foul occur behind the goals, the Referee 
brings the puck five yards within the goal line at 
right angles to the latter, and at least five yards from 
the nearest goal post, and there has it faced. 

SCORE. — One point is scored for a team for each 
time it sends the puck through the opponents' goal. 
The Umpire, stationed behind the goal, informs the 
Referee when the puck has thus gone through, and 
the Referee decides if a goal has been made and an- 
nounces the score. 

A puck to score must pass between the goal posts 
at a height lower than their highest point. 

The game of hockey is played in two 20-minute 
halves, with an intermission of 10 minutes between. 
Any other stops occurring through the game, as for 



302 Ice Hockey 

fouls, puck off the ice, etc., must be limited to 5 
minutes. The Timekeepers keep record of the time, 
estimating it from the Referee's sequel to play, and 
deducting any time between his signals to stop and 
resume the game. They usually sound a gong at the 
end of the halves. 

The teams change goals for the second half. 

The team wins which has scored the greater number 
of goals at the end of the second half. 

TIES. — Should the score be a tie at the end of a 
second half, the play continues until one side secures 
a point, unless otherwise agreed by the Captains 
before the game. 

MATCH AND CHAMPIONSHIP GAMES.— 
Championships within a League, or between Leagues, 
are decided by a series of games decided on at a Con- 
vention composed of one delegate from each club 
represented. Each club so entered should play every 
other club in the series, the club winning the greatest 
number of games being declared the champion. 

The place for playing such games must be arranged 
for by the Executive Committee of the League 
arranging for the championship. The Captains of 
contesting teams must give the names of their players 
on written forms supplied by the Secretary of the 
League to the Referee at the opening of each game. 
No player is eligible who has not been resident within 
fifty miles of the headquarters of his club within sixty 
days previous to the game, and a member of the club 
at least thirty days. No player who has played in 
any other club during the current season is eligible 
for such match games. 



Officials 303 

The Referee for championship games must be 
selected at these conventions. 

The goals, nets, and pucks must be in accordance 
with the specified rules. 

The home club must furnish the Referee with a new 
puck before a match begins. 

OFFICIALS. — The supreme official for a game of 
hockey is a Referee. For match games he may have 
an Assistant Referee, and should always be assisted 
by two Umpires and two Timekeepers, selected, like 
himself, by the Captains of the contesting teams, and 
a Penalty Timekeeper, selected by himself, who keeps 
the time for offending players who are penalized by 
exclusion for a Kmited time from the game. 

REFEREE. — The Referee is in supreme charge of 
the game. He may be either an amateur or profes- 
sional, but must not belong to the competing clubs. 

The duties of the Referee cover the control of the 
game in all points, as to when it shall start and stop, 
the observance of rules and infliction of penalties for 
their infringements and the awarding of goals. He 
has full control of all players and other officials, as 
well as all disputes, and his decisions are final. 

Prior to the beginning of the game, the Referee shall 
assign an Umpire to duty behind each goal. These 
positions shall not be changed during the game. He 
shall also make sure that the timekeepers understand 
their duties. In case of dispute as to the positions of 
Umpires or Timekeepers, it is within the power of the 
Referee to remove and replace them during a game. 

The Referee, prior to a game, should inspect the 
field to see that the ice is in condition and that goal 



304 Ice Hockey 

posts and nets are properly placed and meet the re- 
quirements. He should inspect the players as to 
their equipment ; to see that rules are observed as to 
skates (which may not be sufficiently sharp or pointed 
to injure other players), and as to sticks (which may 
not have a blade wider than three inches nor longer 
than thirteen inches. The length of the stick other- 
wise is not specified.) 

The Referee should address the players before the 
game, reminding them of the rules against personal 
interference, abusive or profane language, and dis- 
cussion with officials other than their own Captain, 
warning them that he will strictly enforce the penalties 
for infringement of these rules. 

The Referee starts the game at the opening of each 
half by placing the puck to be faced in the center of 
the field and also after each goal scored. He does this 
by placing the puck on the ice between two opposing 
players who try for it on his signal to play. Should 
they not succeed in playing fairly for it, he is at liberty 
to rule them away and call for two other players. 

The Referee faces the puck similarly after it goes out 
of bounds, — that is, off the ice. Should this happen 
back of a goal, he brings the puck five yards within 
the goal line, at right angles to the latter and opposite 
the point at which it went off the ice, unless that 
should be nearer than five yards to the nearest goal 
post, when he should move it out to that distance. 
The two nearest opponents are usually called to face 
under the circumstances . Should the puck go off the ice 
on the sides, the Referee brings it in similarly at right 
angles to the side lines and five yards within them. 



Officials 305 

The Referee sounds his whistle for play to stop after 
each goal scored and after each foul or irregularity of 
play. The puck is not played from the time he signals 
for play to begin until he gives such a signal for it to 
cease. It is out of play and may not be touched by 
any player after he has signaled for play to stop until 
he again orders play to be resumed. 

After a foul the Referee usually faces the puck at the 
point at which it was last played before the foul was 
committed. 

The Referee will need to follow the game very 
dosely, keeping within view of the puck, but not so 
close to the players as to interfere with them or with 
the puck. It is well, if the puck is in the center, for the 
Referee to keep to the side, and vice versa, and he 
should move from end to end of the ground as neces- 
sity dictates. 

The Referee should be thoroughly familiar with all 
rules about personal interference, which are counted 
fouls, such as tripping, charging from behind, kick- 
ing, collaring, shinning, striking personally or with 
the stick, or throwing a stick. For such foul he may 
rule off the ice for the entire match, or for any portion 
of its playing time as he sees fit, the player committing 
the foul. The Penalty Timekeeper should keep for 
him a record of the player's name, the offenses, and the 
time at which the penalty begins and ends. It is 
the duty of the Penalty Timekeeper to inform a player 
when he may return to the game under this ruling of 
the Referee, and to see that he does so. 

The Umpires report all goals scored to the Referee, 
who announces these scores and also the final result 



3o6 Ice Hockey 

at the end of the game. The Timekeepers keep the 
written records of these, as far as announced by the 
Referee. 

If any variance occurs in the time of the two 
Timekeepers, who note the length of the halves, they 
report this promptly to the Referee, who decides 
the question. 

UMPIRES. — Two Umpires are chosen for each game 
by the Captains of the contesting teams. The duties 
of the Umpire are concerned entirely with deciding 
whether or not a goal has been made. Each Umpire 
is assigned to his position behind a goal, by the Referee, 
before the game begins, and holds this position without 
change to the end of the game. 

The puck is considered to score only when it goes 
between the goal posts from the front below the level 
of their tops. An Umpire should immediately signal 
to the Referee when a goal is thus made. 

Should any dispute arise as to the decision of an 
Umpire, the Referee may remove and replace him. 

TIMEKEEPERS. — Two Timekeepers are appointed 
by the Captains of the contesting teams and a Penalty 
Timekeeper by the Referee. 

The duties of the Timekeepers are the same, the 
duplication being intended to serve as a check or cor- 
roboration. Any variance in time should be reported 
promptly to the Referee who should decide the question. 
In case of any dispute as to the decisions of the Time- 
keepers, the Referee has power at his discretion to 
remove and replace them. 

The duties of the Timekeepers consist in recording 
the time that should be counted in determining the 



Officials 307 

halves of the game, which consist of twenty minutes 
of playing time each. They begin to reckon time on 
the Referee's signal to play ; this continues until his 
signal to stop (for a foul or other cause) or, should 
there be no such interruption, until the twenty 
minutes have expired; in other words, in estimating 
the twenty-minute halves, all time is deducted between 
the Referee's signal for play to cease and his signal for 
it to resume. 

It is usual to have a gong for the Timekeepers with 
which to signal the end of halves. This is required 
by the Canadian rules. 

PENALTY TIMEKEEPER. — A Penalty Timekeeper, 
selected by the Referee, keeps a record of any players 
ruled out of the game by the Referee for infringement 
of rules, the offense for which this is done and the 
time at which they may return. When this time 
arrives, it is the duty of the Penalty Timekeeper to 
notify the player and see that he returns to the game. 
This record is to be given to the Referee at the close of 
the game. Sometimes the Penalty Timekeeper is 
called upon to keep the score, instead of the other 
Timekeepers. 

CAPTAINS. — Each team should elect a Captain, 
who should be a member of the team. The Captains 
toss for choice of goals before a game ; they also decide 
before a game begins how a tie score should be settled, 
whether by the side which wins the first game after 
the end of the second half, or otherwise. It is also the 
duty of the Captains to make various preliminary 
arrangements for a game, such as deciding on a Referee, 
two Umpires, and two Timekeepers which are mu- 



3o8 Ice Hockey 

tually acceptable to them. Should they be unable to 
decide on these officials for match games, in a league 
the governing body decides on the Referee and the 
Referee on Umpires and Timekeepers. 

During a game, a Captain is the only member of a 
team who may make a complaint to or enter into dis- 
cussion with the Referee. No other player on a team 
may discuss such points with the officials. 

Should any player be injured during the second half 
of a game, it devolves upon the Captain of the opposing 
team to decide whether he will drop one of his own 
players to equalize the teams, or allow the opponents 
to put in a substitute. In case of such injury during 
the first half of a game, his team is allowed a sub- 
stitute without discussion. 

Should there be any dispute between Captains as 
to whether an injured player is able or not to return 
to the game, the question should be decided by the 
Referee. 

It is at the discretion of the Captain whether or not 
after a foul committed by an opposing team the puck 
shall be moved back to the place at which it was last 
played before the foul and there faced. 

OUTFIT. — GOALS for ice hockey consist of 
two upright posts, 4 feet in height, placed 6 feet 
apart. These must be at least 10 feet from the edge 
of the ice. 

NETS are required on goals for all match games. 
These are made of heavy twdne and must be 6 feet 
wide and the full height of the posts (4 feet) . The net 
must be drawn down level with the ice, back of the 
goal. 



Outfit 309 

The cost of goal posts and net complete is from 
$18 to $20 per pair of two goals. 

STICKS. — Hockey sticks are made of wood, so hard 
that they will not fray easily on the edges, or soak 
up water from the ice. No metal may be used in the 
construction of the stick, but it is permissible to wind 
the handle with tape. Sticks may be of any length 
in the handle, but the blade must not be more than 
13 inches long, and no part of the stick must be more 
than 3 inches in width. 

Good hockey sticks cost from 50 cents to 75 cents 
each; for practice, 25 cents. 

PUCK. — Pucks for ice hockey are made of vul- 
canized rubber, are cylindrical in shape, and must 
be I inch thick throughout and 3 inches in diameter. 
The weight must be at least 7^% ounces and not 
more than j-^q ounces. 

Pucks for official games cost 50 cents each ; prac- 
tice pucks, 25 cents. 

SKATES suitable for hockey must not be sharply 
pointed or sharpened, so as to injure other players. 
The Referee may rule out of the game a player in- 
fringing this rule. Good skates for hockey may be 
had at from $2 to $5 per pair. 

GLOVES for hockey are made of leather with rattan 
reeds worked in the gauntlet to protect the hand from 
injury from opponents' sticks. These may be had at 
$3 per pair. 

LEG AND SHIN GUARDS are often worn by goal- 
keepers and sometimes by forwards. Shin Guards 
may be had at from $1 to $2.50 per pair and leg 
guards from $3.50 to $6. 



310 Ice Hockey 

HISTORY. — The early history of hockey is rather 
obscure, but it is thought to be a development from 
games known in Great Britain in very early times 
under the names of Shinny, Shinty, and Hurling. 
The name of hockey is said to be first mentioned in 
some English statutes as early as 1527. 

In its present highly developed form, hockey is due 
to the Canadians among whom the game is widely 
used. Teams for shinny were organized in Canada 
in 1 88 1. Montreal is credited with the first organized 
Hockey Club ; that is, with the first club in which the 
game was definitely defined, with the beginning of 
the modern rules. The first League games in Canada 
were played in 1884. The game was introduced into 
the United States at Johns Hopkins University by 
Mr. C. Shearer, a student from Montreal. 

International games between Canada and the 
United States were first played in 1895. 

The game was introduced in Europe by Mr. George 
A. Meagher of Montreal. The first European team 
was in Paris, with London and Scotland soon following. 
The game is now widely known abroad. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Official Handbooks 

Official Ice Hockey Guide. Edited by Frederick R. Toombs. 
Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American 
Sports Publishing Company.) 

History and Constitution, Rules of Competition and Laws of 
the Game. Ontario Hockey Association. Spalding's 
Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publish- 
ing Company.) 



Glossary 311 



The Game 

Ice Hockey and Ice Polo Guide. By Arthur Farrell. Spald- 
ing's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports 
Publishing Company.) 

The Complete Hockey Player. By Eustace E. White. (Phil- 
adelphia, G. W. Jacobs & Company.) With contributions 
by Philip Collins and L. M. and J. Y. Robinson. With 
thirty-two illustrations, including many special action- 
photographs and a plan. 

How to Play Ice Hockey. By Samuel Trafford Hicks. Spald- 
ing's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports 
Publishing Company.) 

The Book of School and College Sports. By Ralph Henry Bar- 
bour. 

GLOSSARY 

Attack. Those players on a team who are charged with 
attack play on the opponent's goal. They consist of the 
forwards, center and wings. The act of trying to put the 
ball into the opponent's goal. 

Body-check. To shove an opponent with the hip or shoulder. 
This is permissible if done from the front or side, but 
never from the rear. 

Block. To interfere with an opponent by getting in front of 
him, so that he has to go around. The puck may also be 
blocked with the body or a stick, but not with the hand, 
except by the goal keeper. 

Check. To hit the stick of an opponent with one's own. 
This is permissible. 

Face. To put the puck in play between the sticks of two oppo- 
nents ; called facing the puck. 

Lift. To lift the puck in the air with a stroke of the stick. 
This is a permissible form of play. 

Offside. A player is said to be offside, and may not play 
on the puck, if he be between the puck and the opponent's 
goal, if the puck is being played by a member of his own 
team. 



312 Ice Hockey 

Onside. a player is onside, and may play on the puck, if 

he be between the puck and his own goal. 
Puck. The cylindrical piece of hard rubber with which ice 

hockey is played, as a ball is played in many other games. 
Sticks. The long-bladed sticks with which alone the ball 

may be propelled in ice hockey. A call of ^'Sticks!" is 

sometimes used to indicate the foul of raising a stick above 

shoulder height. This height is allowed only in lifting 

the puck. 
Tackle. To take hold of a player with the hands or arms. 

In ice hockey this is a foul. 
Defense. Those players on a team who are responsible for 

defending their own goal. These are the goal keeper, 

point and coverpoint. The act of trying to keep the 

ball from one's own goal. 



INDOOR BASEBALL 



2nd Base 



Left Fielder 



v/^ 3d Baseman /'' , 
3d Base <^ 





3x7 Ft. 


Pitcher's 
Box ""^ 


^ • 



2nd Baseman 



Right Fielder 



I8xl8'" 



1st dasemar) e^ 
Ist Base 



Batter's Box- 
Batter if Right Handed 



XHomd Pla 


r 


.*^ 


^ 


1 ^ 


3x4 Ft. 


4th 


3x4 Ft: 



Batter's Box 

Batter if Left Handed 



2hd Umpire 



Base 



INDOOR BASEBALL 
Diagram of field and position of players at start of gamSo 



314 



INDOOR BASEBALL 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Indoor baseball 
is an adaptation of the regular game of baseball to 
limited space and the indoor conditions prevailing 
in the usual gymnasium. A space 40 X 50 feet is 
about the smallest practicable for a successful game. 
The game has also grown very popular for use in 
small outdoor spaces, and has gained favor as much 
for women and girls as for men and boys. The modi- 
fications from the regular outdoor baseball include 
implements* size of ground, number of players, and 
several changes in the rules of play, as follows : 

The infield or diamond is smaller, measuring for the 
usual gymnasium 27 feet on each side, instead of 90 
feet as in the outdoor game. For large armory floors it 
is sometimes enlarged to 35 feet. The pitcher's box 
is farther from the batter than in the regular game, 
and the batter's boxes are somewhat smaller. The 
bases are smaller, and are not fastened to the floor. 
The ball is larger and softer than the outdoor baseball, 
being made to go a shorter distance when batted, and 
to be less harmful should it hit anything. The bat is 
shorter and smaller in circumference, and with it the 
ball cannot be batted to so great a distance as with the 
regular outdoor bat. 

The game may be played with different numbers of 
players, though nine is the usual number. With 
nine, the right fielder usually comes into the diamond 

315 



3i6 Indoor Baseball 

as a shortstop on the right side, and the center fielder 
moves to the right. The second baseman remains on 
his bag (second base). With seven players these two 
shortstops are dispensed with. 

The most important differences in playing rules are : 

(a) The ball may be pitched only with a full swing 
of the straight arm at the side, — never an overhand 
throw. The arm may not be brought above the 
shoulder. 

(b) A ball is fair or foul according to its first point 
of contact, and not according to where it rolls, as in 
the outdoor game. 

(c) There may be no stealing of bases, a base runner 
not being allowed to leave his base while the pitcher 
holds the ball. 

(d) The batsman, in overrunning first base, may 
turn either to right or left. 

(e) Base runners for second, third, and home bases 
are not out if they overrun the base, as in the out- 
door game, provided, however, that they carry the 
base with them. 

(/) Two Umpires are required, one who calls bails, 
strikes, and all other matters relating to the ball, or 
to pitching or batting; this Umpire stands behind 
the catcher. The second Umpire stands about ten 
feet back of this position and to one side ; he judges 
of base plays except at the home plate. The two 
Umpires exchange places at the close of each full 
inning. 

As in the regular outdoor game of baseball, the 
game is played by two opposing teams, usually of nine 



General Description 317 

members each. The members of one team — those 
'' at bat '' — go into the game one at a time. This 
player enters as a batsman, and if successful becomes 
a base runner. The team at bat scores one point 
for each player who successfully touches in their 
regular order all four bases, finishing at the home 
plate where he started as a batter. This may all be 
done in one run (called a home run), or the runners 
may stop at the different bases en route as points of 
safety. 

The opposing team, called fielders, may prevent 
these runs by intercepting or heading off the base 
runners. This is done by tagging a base runner with 
the ball held in the hand of the tagger when the base 
runner is between bases, or by touching (while holding 
the ball) the base he is trying to make before he can 
get there. The batsman may also be put out before 
he becomes a base runner, by failing to bat at three 
good balls. A good ball is one pitched so that it 
passes over the home plate at a height between the 
batsman's knee and shoulder. Such a pitched ball is 
called a strike ; a ball pitched outside these limits is 
called a ball. The Umpire decides and calls in the case 
of each ball pitched whether it be a ball or a strike. 
The pitcher tries to pitch balls that will curve unex- 
pectedly, or otherwise lead to poor play by the bats- 
man. The batsman is obliged to run on a third 
strike, if the catcher did not hold the ball ; otherwise 
he is put out by being touched with the ball. After 
a fourth ball (poor ball), the batsman is entitled to 
proceed without interference to first base. 

When three pl^^yers of the team '' at bat " have been 



3i8 Indoor Baseball 

put out, either while batting, or as base runners, it is 
called a half inning and the teams change places. 
A game consists of nine such innings for each team, 
and the team wins which has scored the largest number 
of runs in that time. 

The details of the game follow, and notes indicate 
differences from the usual game of baseball, which is 
here referred to as the regular, or outdoor, game. 

FIELD. — Indoor baseball may be played on al- 
most any clear floor space large enough to be used 
for a gymnasium, if not proportioned too long and 
narrow; 40 X 50 feet is about the smallest space 
that admits of a good game. On such a field is out- 
lined on the floor an 

I INFIELD OR DIAMOND. — This consists of a square 
placed cornerwise to the outlines of the general in- 
closure, giving it somewhat the appearance of a dia- 
mond. For a gymnasium floor the official rules call 
for an infield measuring 27 feet on each side. This 
infield is placed at one end of the room, leaving at 
least ten or fifteen feet behind the home plate for the 
catcher ; that is, between the corner nearest one end 
of the room and the wall. 

On a very large floor, as in an armory, the diamond 
is enlarged to 35 feet square. On such a field all other 
dimensions remain the same as here described, except 
the distance of the pitcher's box from the home plate, 
as described under ^^ Bases.'' 

BASES. — Within each of the four angles of the 
infield is placed a base. That nearest the end of the 
room is called the home plate or fourth base, and 
consists of a sheet of rubber one foot square. The 



Field 319 

balls are pitched for this plate, and the boxes, in one 
of which the batsman stands, are drawn on either side 
of it. 

In the other three corners of the infield are placed 
bags measuring i^ feet square on their upper and lower 
surfaces, and a few inches thick. These are half filled 
with sand, sawdust, or other soft material, and must 
not be fastened to the floor. These constitute the 
first, second, and third bases, going to the right from 
the home plate. 

pitcher's box. — An inclosure within which the 
pitcher stands is drawn on the floor, and measures 
7X3 feet. It is on a direct line forward from the 
home plate, and its forward line is required, on a 27- 
foot field, to be 23 feet from the center of the home 
base. On the 35-foot field used on armory floors, the 
pitcher's plate is 30 feet from the center of the home 
plate. 

FOUL LINES. — The rear outlines of the diamond — 
that is, the lines running forward from the home plate 
to first and third bases — are continued forward to 
the boundaries of the ground, forming foul lines. 
The diamond and the ground forward of it between 
these foul lines is fair ground, and that to the rear 
of them foul ground. 

Note. — The most important differences between the laying . 
out of the ground for the indoor and outdoor or regular game of 
baseball are, that in the game of indoor baseball, no place is 
defined for the catcher as in the outdoor game : he merely 
stands directly behind and close to the batsman ; there are 
no three-foot lines as a limit for base runners, and no coachers' 
or players' lines, as in the outdoor game * the diamond is 



320 Indoor Baseball 

smaller; the bases are smaller and not fastened to the floor;, 
the home plate is smaller and square instead of five -sided ; the 
pitcher's box is larger and is placed nearer to second base, and 
the batter's boxes are shorter. 

TEAMS: INNINGS. —A team may consist of 
seven or nine players. Two such teams are neces- 
sary for a game. Only one team may score at a time, 
that is, the team at bat (the team batting and run- 
ning bases) . The players of the opposing or defensive 
team are called fielders, and the two teams exchange 
places when the team at bat has had three players 
put out, as explained under '' Batsman ^' and " Base 
Runners.'^ 

This turn at bat is called a half inning, and a game 
consists of nine such innings for each team. (For 
junior players this is sometimes shortened to seven.) 

When a team is at bat, each player on it enters the 
game as a batsman, and, if successful, becomes a base 
runner, so that each member of each team should be 
qualified to play these two positions. In addition, 
when a team is in the field (on the defensive), its 
players specialize on different positions. For the 
indoor game these are not as closely defined as in the 
outdoor game ; all are called fielders and are disposed 
at the direction of the Captain of the team, who may 
vary or interchange the position of basemen, fielders, 
and shortstop. In the outdoor game there is a pitcher, 
catcher, a keeper, or guard for each of first, second, and 
third bases, called basemen (the catcher serves as 
baseman on the fourth or home base), a right, left, 
and center fielder, who field (catch and return) balls 
batted far outside the diamond, and a shortstop who 



Batsman 321 

fields balls falling near the left boundary of the dia- 
mond. In the indoor game the positions of all but 
pitcher and catcher may vary considerably, especially 
the fielders and shortstop. The right fielder is often 
made a shortstop on the right-hand side, the center 
fielder playing more to the right. A usual position for 
players is shown in the diagram. 

The Team at Bat 

BATSMAN. — BATTING ORDER. — Each player 
on every team has, at some time during a game, and 
perhaps many times, to take his place as batsman; 
the names of the players in the order in which they will 
go to the bat are written down by the Captain of the 
team and handed to the Umpire before the game. 
This is called the batting order. The opposing Cap- 
tain is privileged to see this order. 

The Score Keeper calls the players to the bat by 
name as they come in the batting order. A player 
may be declared out by the Umpire should he fail to 
take his position as batsman within one minute after 
being called. 

After the first inning, the player to be called to the 
bat is the one whose name appears on the batting order 
next to the one who last completed his time at bat. 
A player is considered to have completed his time at 
bat when he has been put out or become a base runner ; 
the only exceptions to this are when he has been given 
a base for poor play on the part of the opponents for 
(a) four balls, (b) being hit by a pitched ball, or 
(c) interfered with by the catcher, or (d) when he 



322 Indoor Baseball 

makes a sacrifice hit. In these cases he is not con- 
sidered to have completed his time at bat. 

batsman's place. — The batsman stands in one 
of the batsman's boxes, beside the home plate, making 
his choice of the two according to whether he be right 
or left handed. The batter must stand entirely 
within his box. To step outside it in batting consti- 
tutes a foul strike and puts the batter out. 

BATSMAN'S DUTIES IN GENERAL. — The main ob- 
ject of the batsman is to hit the ball, pitched to him 
by his opponent, the pitcher, so far, or so effectively, 
as to be able to run to first base at least, and if possible 
farther., before the ball can be fielded (caught) by the 
opponents and thrown back to a baseman in time 
to put the batsman out before he can reach his base. 
This putting out may be done either by (i) tagging 
the batsman with the ball (held, not thrown) while he 
is between bases, or (2) by an opponent standing on 
the advance base with the ball in his hand before the 
batsman can reach it. 

It is also a batsman's duty to so bat the ball as to 
give his team-mates who have become base runners a 
chance to advance. Sometimes he does this with a 
hit that he knows will, in all probability, enable the 
opponents to put him (the batter) out. This is called 
a sacrifice hit. 

The kinds of ball pitched to him, the way in which 
he bats them or tries to, and whether or not the 
opponents catch them, all determine whether or not 
the batsman is entitled to run for first base, or whether 
or not he must be allowed to take it without inter- 
ference, as a penalty to the opponents for poor play. 



Strikes and Balls 323 

STRIKES AND BALLS. — A batter is allowed three 
good chances to hit the ball, and must then become 
a base runner whether he has hit the ball or not, pro- 
vided the catcher drop the last chance ; if the catcher 
holds the third good ball (makes a good catch), 
the batter is '' out." 

Note. — When there is only one man already out, a call of 
'^ Third strike!'' puts a batsman out if there be a base runner 
on first base. 

A good chance, or good ball, is one that passes over 
the home plate, and does so at a height not greater 
than the batter's shoulder, or lower than his knee. 
This is called a strike, whether he hits it or not. A 
poor ball is one that does not pass over the home plate, 
or that goes over it higher or lower than the limits 
mentioned. This is called a ball, as distinguished 
from a strike. The Umpire judges of every ball 
pitched, and calls aloud "^ Ball '' or ^^ Strike '' (and 
how many, as " Two balls,'' " Three balls ") after 
every ball pitched. On '* Four balls " the batsman 
may advance to first base without interference from the 
opponents. This is called giving him a base on balls. 

Should a batsman make a mistake and hit, or hit 
at, a poorly pitched ball (a ball as distinguished from 
a strike), it counts against him as one of the three 
strikes to which he is entitled. 

A ball which he intentionally gets in the way of, 
so that it hits his person and becomes a ^^ dead ball," 
is also called a strike. 

A skillful pitcher will try to mislead a batsman by so 
pitching the ball that it suddenly swerves to one side 



324 Indoor Baseball 

or the other, or upward or downward, just as it reaches 
the plate. 

FAIR AND FOUL HITS. — A fair hit ]^ a ball so batted 
that it falls within the infield or diamond, or forward 
of it between the foul lines, or on these lines. A 
foul hit is one that falls to the rear of these limits. 
The first touch of the ball to the floor or other object 
determines whether it be foul or fair. 

Note that the term '^foul hit'' refers to the part of the 
ground to which the batsman hits a ball, and *'foul strike'' to 
his stepping out of the batter's box while batting. 

A fly ball caught by the opponents, before the ball 
hits anything, whether the ball be foul or fair, puts 
the batter out. 

Unless sure that his hit was to foul ground, a bats- 
man should throw down his bat and run immediately 
upon making a hit, without waiting to see if it be fair 
or foul ; if the hit be foul and the ball not caught, 
the batter should return to his box. 

SUMMARY OF RULES FOR BATSMAN.— 

THE BATSMAN SHOULD RUN FOR FIRST BASE, BUT 
MAY BE PUT OUT (i) by being tagged with the ball 
before reaching it, or (2) by an opponent's being before 
him on the base holding the ball, under the following 
circumstances : 

(a) If he bats a ball to fair ground (a '' fair hit ")• 
The only exception to this is when the opponents 
catch a fly ball ; that puts the batter out. He should 
run instantly, however, on a fair hit, without waiting 
to see if the ball is caught. 

(b) If three strikes are called. Here, again, the 



The Batsman is Out 325 

batsman should run instantly, without waiting to see 
if the ball is caught by the catcher. A fly catch of 
such a ball puts him out anyway. 
THE BATSMAN IS OUT : 

(a) If the opponents catch any fly ball from his bat 
before it touches any other object, whether it goes 
to fair ground or foul. 

(b) If a third strike is similarly caught before touch- 
ing the ground or any other object, whether the bats- 
man has hit it or not. 

(c) If three strikes are called when there is one 
player only out and one on first base. 

(d) If, on the third strike, he is hit by the ball. 

(e) If he makes a foul strike ; that is, bats the ball 
while stepping or otherwise touching the ground out- 
side . the batter's box. Note that the term ^' foul 
strike " refers to the batter's position while batting, 
and '^ foul hit " to the part of the ground to which he 
sends the ball. 

(/) If he interferes with the catching of the ball in 
any other way than by batting. 

(g) If on his third strike he purposely gets in the 
way of the ball so that it hits him and becomes a dead 
ball. 

(h) If he kicks or otherwise interferes with a ball he 
has just batted. 

(i) If he fails to be in position for batting within 
one minute after being called by the Umpire. 

(/) If he bats out of his turn. 

THE BATSMAN IS ENTITLED TO FIRST BASE WITH- 
OUT INTERFERENCE (i.e., without liabiUty of being 
put out) : 



326 Indoor Baseball 

(a) When the pitcher has dehvered four ^^ balls " 
(i.e., four balls as distinguished from '' strikes")- The 
batsman should run for the base instantly when he 
hears the Umpire's call of '' Four balls ! " 

(b) When the pitcher delivers the ball illegally; 
that is, (i) when, in pitching it, any part of his person 
is out of the box ; (2) when he fails to heel the rear 
line of the pitcher's box with bpth feet just before 
throwing ; or (3) when he takes more than one step 
in the act of pitching. 

(c) If a fair-hit ball strikes the person or clothing of 
the Umpire. 

Note.. — The main differences between rules for batsmen in 
the outdoor and indoor games are that in the indoor game the 
batsman is not entitled to a base on ^^ balls'' by the pitcher 
(only on illegal delivery). 

BASE RUNNERS. — IN GENERAL. — The score in 
baseball is made entirely through the running of 
bases, one point being scored for each player who suc- 
ceeds in touching, in regular order, the first, second, 
third, and fourth bases. The latter is the home 
plate, over which the ball is pitched and beside which 
the batter stands before he becomes a base runner. 
The circumstances under w:hich a batsman may 
become a base runner are explained under '' Batsman.'' 
He may be able to run only to first base on a hit, or 
to second base (called a two-base hit) , or to third base 
(three-base hit) , or even make the entire circuit to the 
home plate, called a ^' home run.'' Nothing scores 
but reaching the fourth base, or home plate, after 
touching all of the other bases, and that scores one 



Base Runners 327 

point, whether made in a home run or by stopping e?i 
route at the bases. 

Bases may be made either by running or by sliding. 
The latter is often done at full length on the ground. 
In this indoor game it is good form in sliding a base 
to approach it head first, with an arm extended, but 
there is no rule about this. 

The object of the opposing team, which is ^^ in the 
field,'' is to put out the base runners before they can 
get to the fourth base. This is done (i) by tagging a 
runner with the ball, held in the hand, not thrown ; 
or (2) by a player holding the ball while on a base 
before the runner gets to it. A base is a point of 
safety, and no runner may be put out or touched out 
while he is touching a base to which he is legally 
entitled. It is only between bases that the danger 
lies. Any player of the opposing team may put out a 
base runner, and the opponents will assist each other 
to do this by throwing the ball to any player who is in 
a position to put out a runner. 

There are certain conditions under which base 
runners may or may not run to the next base, and in 
indoor baseball these follow very closely the conditions 
that allow the batsman to try for first base. One of 
the distinctive points of indoor baseball is that, 
because of the limited distances, the stealing of bases 
is restricted by the rules under which players may 
advance. 

Only one runner may be on a base at a time. When 
a runner comes to an occupied base, the runner there 
before him is obhged to advance. This is called being 
forced off, or a forced run. 



328 Indoor Baseball 

RULES FOR BASE RUNNING : RUNNER FOR FIRST 
BASE. — The runner for first base is not obliged to 
follow the base line or keep within a specified distance 
of it as for the other bases, or as in the regular out- 
door game. 

A runner may overrun (run beyond) first base 
without liability of being put out after touching it, 
provided he returns at once 'and touches it again. 
Having done this, he is liable to be put out if off base. 

A runner may overrun first base and keep right on 
to second base, without returning and touching the 
first, but loses the exemption from being put out while 
off base after passing first. 

In overrunning first base the runner may turn either 
to right or left to return to the base. 

The conditions under which the batsman is entitled 
to try for first base, or is accorded it as a penalty to 
the opponents for poor play, are given under " Bats- 
man." 

RUNNERS FOR SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH 
BASES : THREE-FOOT LIMIT. — In running for these 
bases, a runner must follow closely the base line (out- 
line of the diamond). Should he go more than three 
feet away from this on either side, to avoid a fielder 
with the ball, he is out, unless the fielder be neces- 
sarily in the base runner's path to catch a batted ball ; 
in such a case the runner may diverge without penalty. 

OVERRUNNING BASES. — A runner for second or 
third base may overrun or overslide the base without 
liability of being put out, provided he carry the bag 
with him and cling to it, and also provided he return the 
bag to its proper place before going on to another base. 



Base Runners 329 

In overrunning the fourth base, or home plate, it is 
not necessary to return to it if he has, in passing, 
touched the base or the place, where it should be. 

BASE RUNNERS MAY START from first, second, or 
third bases only when the ball is not in the hands of the 
pitcher. From the time the pitcher gets the ball, 
until it leaves his hands in a throw or pitch, base 
runners must touch their bases. 

The rules also seek to limit the stealing of bases by 
holding runners on bases until the result of a pitched 
ball be known, and though runners take some chances 
on these, the stealing of bases is much less than in the 
regular outdoor game. The rules referred to are as 
follows : 

Should the batted ball be a fly (either to fair or foul 
ground), and the opponent catch it, the base runner 
may start from his base only after the catch. He may, 
however, start immediately after such a catch is made. 
Should he have started before the catch, in an attempt 
to steal a base on the chance that the ball will not be 
a fly catch, he must return and touch his base before 
making the advance. 

A base runner may make as many bases as possible 
when the ball goes among the spectators, either from 
the bat or a throw, unless there be special ground rules 
obtaining in the place where the game is played, 
which Hmit the number of bases. 

If a pitched ball is not struck, the base runner may 
not leave his base until it has reached or passed the 
catcher. This implies that he must wait to see 
whether or not the ball is struck. 

After the ball is struck, or has reached the catcher, 



330 Indoor Baseball 

a base runner may run without waiting to seethe result, 
but under certain circumstances, as hereinafter speci- 
fied, he may not hold the advanced base, and must 
return to the one from which he started. 

FORCED RUN. — As only one player at a time may 
occupy a base, a base runner is obliged to advance 
when another runner comes to his base from behind, 
entitled to stay there. This is called being forced off, 
or a forced run. 

A player is Kable to be forced out while making a 
forced run under all circumstances, except when the 
batsman be given a base on balls ('^ four balls ")• 

STEALING BASES. — To steal a base is to take 
chances on reaching it before knowing whether the 
result of a play of the ball will entitle the base runner 
to stay, or compel him to return to the base from which 
he came. Because of the short distances between 
bases, the rules of indoor baseball are so framed as to 
make base stealing especially hazardous, and almost 
to eliminate it. The most effective rules for this are 
(i) the requirement that in the case of a fly catch from 
the bat a base runner must touch the base from which 
he starts after the catch ; and (2) that in case a 
pitched ball is not hit, it must have reached or passed, 
the catcher before the base runner may start. 

The Umpire can send a player back to his base for 
starting too soon. 

A RUNNER MUST RETURN to the base from which 
he started, and in so doing may not be put out, if the 
Umpire decides 

(a) That he started too soon ; 

(b) That the ball was a foul hit, not caught ; 



Base Runners 331 

(c) That it was a foul strike (the batter out of his 
box) ; 

(d) That it was a dead ball (had hit the batter) ; 

(e) That it had hit the umpire. 

BASE RUNNER OUT. — A base runner may be put 
out only by a ball fielded after a fly hit from the bat. 
This fly hit may be either to fair or foul ground. To 
put him out an opponent must 

(i) touch him with the ball held in the hand (not 
thrown) while the base runner is not touching a base 
to which he is entitled ; or, 

(2) he may be put out by the opponent (holding 
the ball), being on the base to which the runner was 
legally entitled when the ball was struck. 

A base runner is automatically out as a penalty for 
bad play 

(i) if he interferes with a fielder's catching of a 
batted or thrown ball, or 

(2) if, in running bases, he goes more than three feet 
on either side of the base line to avoid being tagged 
out; and, 

(3) if a fair-hit ball hits the runner while off base, 
before hitting anything else. 

ENTITLED TO A BASE. — A base runner may advance 
one base without being put out, as a penalty to the 
opponents for certain misplays, as follows : 

(a) If the Umpire calls a ball (i.e., failure of the 
pitcher to deliver the ball after making a motion of 
doing so, or the pitcher's holding the ball long enough 
to delay the game) . 

(b) If the Umpire calls an illegal pitch (i.e., a 
delivering of the ball by the pitcher while stepping out 



332 Indoor Baseball 

of the pitcher's box, or taking more than one step in 
it, or failing to heel the back line of the base with both 
feet just before pitching the ball) . 

(c) If the pitcher should not give him time to return 
to his base when the rules require his going back. 

(d) If an opponent purposely obstructs his path. 

(e) If a fair-hit ball strikes the Umpire. 

(/) If he is forced off a base by the batsman's being 
given a base, either on '^ four balls " or for illegal 
dehvery of the ball by the pitcher. 

COACHING. — A base runner may be coached by a 
player of his team called a coacher ; that is, he may 
have the judgment of such a player as to when it is 
safe to run, etc. For the rules governing coaching, 
see ^' coachers." 

Note. — The main differences in rules for base runners be- 
tween the indoor and outdoor games are: (i), that only a 
batted ball caught on the fly may be used to put a player out 
(this may be fielded as necessary) ; (2) that the base runner 
must touch the base from which he starts after a fly catch 
(either fair or foul), or, in case the ball be not hit, after it has 
reached or passed the catcher ; (3) any base runner may over- 
run a base without liability of being put out, but on second and 
third bases must carry the bag with him, and return it to place 
before going to the next base ; in overrunning first base he may 
turn either way, and is not liable to be put out if he go back to 
first ; but he must return and touch the base before going to 
second, or he may be put out before making that base. 

COACHERS. — Base runners are allowed assist- 
ance from one or two players of their own team, called 
coachers, who are not allowed on fair ground, but 
take places near first and third bases. Their help may 
consist only in giving advice or encouragement to the 



Pitcher 333 

base runners. They may not address the spectators. 
Being in a position to see the entire field, they may be 
better able than the runner to know when it is safe 
to run, when to steal bases, etc. 

In indoor baseball no coacher is allowed on the field 
when there are no players on bases ; only one coacher 
is allowed when there is but one base runner, and two 
(never more), when two or more bases are occupied. 

The Team in the Field 

PITCHER. — DUTIES IN GENERAL. — The pitcher 
is that player of the defensive team who pitches the 
ball for the batsman to hit. The batter is his oppo- 
nent; the catcher, standing behind the batter, is of 
his own team ; together they make what is called the 
battery. 

By skillful pitching a pitcher may be able to retire 
a batsman before he becomes a base runner, in which 
capacity he may score for his team. Each batter is 
allowed three '' strikes,'' that is, three hits at the ball, 
and must run for first base on the third strike if the 
catcher did not hold the ball, whether or not he has hit 
it. Should he not hit at a good ball, it is counted just 
the same as one of his three strikes. What consti- 
tutes a good or poor ball is described under '' Strikes " 
and '' Balls." 

By skillful pitching, a pitcher may deceive a bats- 
man as to where the ball coming toward him will pass 
over the plate. This is done by pitching what are 
called curve or drop balls ; that is, balls that leave 
the hand in such a way that they suddenly swerve from 



334 Indoor Baseball 

a direct line, either to right or left, upward or down- 
ward, just as or before they reach the plate. 

SUMMARY OF RULES FOR PITCHER: PITCHER'S 
PLACE. — The pitcher's box is larger in indoor base- 
ball than in the regular outdoor game, and is placed 
nearer to second base. A pitcher must stand wholly 
within his box while delivering the ball. Before 
throwing, he must take a position facing the batter, 
and heel the rear line of his box ; that is, touch that 
line with both heels. In this position he must hold the 
ball in front of his body in plain sight of the Umpire. 
In the act of delivering the ball he may take not more 
than one step, and that must be within the box. 

In playing on a large armory floor with 35-foot 
base lines, and 30-foot pitching distance, the pitcher 
may heel a line drawn across his box 18 inches from the 
rear, and may do this either with one or both feet. 
In delivery he is restricted to one step within the box, 
as on the smaller diagram. 

Any ball pitched to the bat with infringement of 
these regulations as to the position of the pitcher in his 
box, is called an illegal ball. As a penalty for such 
a throw, the batsman is allowed to go to first base, and 
runners already on bases are allowed to advance one 
base. 

THE THROW. — An underhand ^throw is the only 
kind allowed in pitching to the bat in indoor base- 
ball. The arm must be swung at the side, parallel 
to the body, in delivering the ball. The pitcher is at 
hberty to make any kind of preliminary movements 
with the arm, but must release the ball from a side 
swing. 



Rules for Pitchers 335 

A motion to deliver the ball without doing so is 
called a ^^ balk/' and is penaHzed by allowing each 
base runner (but not the batsman), to advance one 
base. 

It is also a balk for the pitcher to delay the game by 
holding the ball unnecessarily. This also advances 
base runners a base as above. On the other hand, the 
pitcher must hold the ball long enough to give any 
base runner time to return to his base should the rules 
call for such return, as failure to so hold the ball en- 
titles the base runner to advance one base without 
interference. A base runner may not leave his base 
while the pitcher holds the ball ; should he have left 
it after the throw, but before the result of the play 
be known, he must return to his base should the Um- 
pire decide that (a) he started too soon ; (b) that the 
ball was a foul hit not caught ; (c) that it was a foul 
strike ; {d) that it had hit the Umpire ; ( ^ ) at any 
time when the Umpire calls '' Time '' ; and then he 
may not run again until a legal opportunity is offered 
after the Umpire calls ^^ Play." 

STRIKES AND BALLS. — A good ball is one that 
passes over the home plate, and in doing so is not 
higher than the batsman's shoulder or lower than his 
knee when he is standing erect. Such a good ball is 
called a strike. A poor ball is called a ball, as dis- 
tinguished from a strike, and is one so pitched that 
it goes outside of these limits ; that is, does not pass 
over the home plate, or does so higher or lower than 
the limits specified. The Umpire decides whether 
a ball be a strike or a ball, and calls it after every 
ball pitched. 



336 Indoor Baseball 

There is a limit to the number of poor balls a pitcher 
may deUver, as the batsman is allowed to go to first 
base without interference on the fourth ball. This is 
called giving him a base on balls. 

Note. — The main differences between indoor baseball and 
the regular outdoor game, in rules for the pitcher are 

{a) the pitcher's box is larger and placed nearer second base ; 

{h) the pitcher may not step out of his box in pitching ; 

{c) he must stand with both heels on the rear line of the box 
in pitching ; 

{d) he may pitch the ball only in an underhand throw, with 
a full side swing of the arm ; 

{e) he must hold the ball long enough to enable base runners 
to return to their bases, but no longer ; 

(/) because of the limitations on. stealing bases, he will have 
less to do in throwing the ball to other players than the bats- 
man, for the purpose of intercepting base runners, but there are 
rules about this ; because of the smaller field he will have less 
to do in fielding the ball, but there are no rules against this. 

FIELDERS. — In indoor baseball, all of the 
players in the field, except the pitcher, are called 
fielders. As implied by this, there is less specializa- 
tion in their positions and duties than in the regular 
outdoor game. The Captain may assign these players 
to any position on fair ground that he chooses, but 
such assignment follows in the main the positions in 
the regular game. These players, five or seven in 
number (to make a team of seven or nine), are dis- 
posed in any way that may best protect the bases 
and field the b^^tted balls. One player is on or near 
each base; one or two fielders are in the outfield 
{ix,, forward of the diamond, between the foul lines), 
and one or two act as shortstops, standing usually 



Fielders: Catcher 337 

within the diamond on either side. There is also a 
catcher. 

RULES FOR FIELDERS. — A base runner may be 
put out (i) by being tagged with a ball caught 
on the fly and held in the hands of an opponent 
(not thrown) ; i.e., the fielder must hold the ball 
in his hand after he has touched the runner ; (2) by 
a fielder, holding a batted ball caught on the fly by 
himself or one of his team mates, being on a base 
which the runner is trying to make before the latter 
can get there. 

It will be noticed that this fly catch is not limited 
to fair or foul ground, but the ball must not have 
touched any other object after leaving the bat before 
reaching the hands of the fielder. 

A ball may not be used to put out a runner, but must 
be returned directly to the pitcher, when it is (i) a 
foul strike (i.e., the batter out of his box) ; (2) hit 
to foul ground and not caught; (3) on a dead ball 
(one that has touched the batter) ; or (4) one that 
has hit a base runner off base on fair ground and so 
put him out. It should be noted that a foul hit 
caught may be used to put out a runner, and any fair 
hit except one hitting a base runner. 

CATCHER. — The catcher stands behind the bats- 
man or home plate. He does not have a lined-in 
space as in the outdoor game, and there is no rule, as 
in the former game, about his nearness to the plate 
when the ball is pitched. His main duties are quite 
the same as those of the catcher in the outdoor game : 
(i) to catch all pitched balls and either throw them 
to a baseman with which to put out a runner, or 



338 Indoor Baseball 

return the ball to the pitcher ; and (2) to act as base- 
man, or guard for the fourth base (home plate). 

SCORE. — The score in indoor baseball, as in 
the outdoor game, is made solely by the team at 
bat. 

One point is scored for each player who reaches the 
home plate (fourth base), after touching first, second, 
and third bases in their regular order. This may be 
done in one run, called a home run, or by stopping at 
the various bases en route. The score is the same in 
either case. 

The teams change places when the team at bat 
has had three men put out. This is called a half in- 
ning. A full inning gives each team a turn at bat. 
That team wins which has scored the largest number 
of points (runs) in nine innings. 

The nine full innings are not played out and the 
game is decided on the score as it stands, if 

(i) the team second at bat scores more in eight 
innings than its opponents in nine ; or 

(2) if the team second at bat scores a winning run 
in its ninth inning before the third man is out. 

TIE GAME, OR DRAWN GAME. — Should the score 
be the same for each team at the end of the ninth in- 
ning, it is called a tie or drawn game. This is settled 
by continuing the innings until one team has a higher 
score than the other in an equal number of innings, 
or until one team has made more points than the 
team first at bat. 

For an indoor game, where darkness does not inter- 
fere, it is not necessary to defer successive innings to 
another date. 



Score: Records 



339 



RECORDS. — In addition to the actual points scored 
in the game, an official baseball score contains a record 
of the plays made by each player, set down in columns 
opposite his name. There are some slight differences 
from the outdoor game, as shown in the following 
table : 





1ST 


2ND 


3RD 


4TH 


5TH 


6th 




COL. 


COL. 


Col. 


Col. 


Col. 


Col. 




!z; 


"Z 


iz: 


"Z 


Z 


W 




c 


C 


c 


c 


^ 






B 


3 


B 


B 


3 







cr 


cr 


cr 


cr 


cr 


^ 




CD 


o 


o 












<-l 


•-t 


•-t 


^ 


►t 






o 


o 


o 


























rf- 


tr 


;:i 





f-f- 




Indoor Baseball . . 


B 

w 

■ p 


in 

B 

p 


B 






3 




' 








t3 

C/3 


^ 






P 








Q 






r+- 






13 









In explanation of the above records for Indoor 
Baseball it should be said that : 

(i) The number of times at bat is the number of 
times completed at bat as described under '' Batsman." 

(2) The number of hits made are those that are 
not fielded or stopped at once by the opponents, 
enabling the runner to reach first base, before being 
tagged by an opposing player with the ball. 

(3) The number of runs is the number of complete 
circuits of the bases. 

(4) A player is credited with putting out an oppo- 
nent when he {a) tags him out with the ball, or {b) puts 



340 Indoor Baseball 

him out by being on base before him with the ball. 
Every player put out is credited as a put-out to some 
one of the team in the field, even when the player is 
retired for a misplay of his own. Thus, the catcher 
is credited with a put-out when the batsman makes a 
foul strike, or bats out of his turn ; and a fielder is 
credited with a put-out when (c) he would have put 
a player out but for the runner's infringing the rule 
about not evading fielders by running off the base line, 
or (d) when the batsman interferes with the ball. 

(5) A player is credited with an assist whenever he 
makes a play that enables a team-mate to put out 
an opponent, as by throwing him the ball in time. 
This credit is given even when the last player fails to 
complete the play. 

(6) An error is recorded against a fielder whenever 
he might have played the ball, but did not, so as to 
prevent a base's being made. This does not apply 
to the pitcher and catcher for battery errors ; that is, 
for misplays in their capacity as pitcher and catcher ; 
it does apply to them for misplays in fielding. 

A summary of each game of indoor baseball is 
required of the scorer, and according to official rule, 
must contain the following items : 

(i) The score made in each inning of the game and, 
presumably, the total. 

(2) The number of two base hits, three base hits, 
and home runs made by each player. 

(3) FOR EACH PITCHER : 

(a) The number of hits made from his pitching ; 

(b) The number of times batsmen are put out on 
his pitching ; 



Officials 341 

(c) The number of times batsmen are given a base 
on four balls ; 

(d) The number of wild pitches he makes ; 

(4) FOR THE CATCHER : 

The number of balls he allows to pass him without 
catching ; 

(5) THE TIME in which the game is played, men- 
tioning hours and minutes ; and 

(6) THE NAMES OF THE UMPIRES. 

Note. — The summary for indoor baseball differs from that 
for the regular outdoor game in containing the number of hits 
(not base hits) made from the pitching of each pitcher ; and in 
omitting the following items : — The number of base hits made 
from each pitcher ; the number of stolen bases ; the number of 
double and triple plays, and the names of the players assisting 
in these ; the number of innings in which each pitcher pitched, 
and the number of times the pitcher hits a batsman with a 
pitched ball. 

OFFICIALS. — Two Umpires and one or two 

Scorers constitute the officials for a game of indoor 
baseball. 

The Umpires are in entire charge of the game and 
their decisions on all matters of judgment (as to balls 
and strikes, the making of bases, etc.) may not be dis- 
puted. A Captain (no other player) may protest to 
an Umpire as to the interpretation or appHcation of 
rules, but not as to matters of judgment. 

The first Umpire stands behind the catcher. He 
starts and stops the game by calling ^^ Play ! " or 
'' Time ! '' ; he decides when the batsman is out or may 
run ; he decides all matters relating to the ball, its 



342 Indoor Baseball 

pitching, or batting, including balls, strikes, blocks, 
dead balls, balks, illegal deliveries, foul strikes, and 
fair and foul hits ; also all points relating to the fourth 
base, such as whether base runners have made it or not. 

The second Umpire stands about ten feet back of the 
diamond, about midway between the home plate and 
first or third base. He is at liberty to move around. 
The second Umpire decides on all base plays except 
those at the home plate; that is, whether or not a 
player has made first, second, or third base, is out, 
or must return to his base. 

In case of doubt the two Umpires may confer. 

The two Umpires change places at the end of each 
•full inning ; that is, when each team has had a turn 
at bat. 

THE SCORE KEEPER keeps the official score according 
to the decisions of the Umpires, and as explained under 
'' Score." He should call the batters to bat, as each 
batter's turn comes. 

MATCH GAMES. — The regulations for these are 
quite the same as for the outdoor game. 

The choice of innings (which team shall go first to 
the bat), is determined by flipping a coin. 

OUTFIT. — BALL. — The ball for indoor baseball 
is larger and softer than that used for the outdoor 
game. This prevents its being batted to long dis- 
tances, and makes it less dangerous in hitting persons 
or objects. These balls vary from 15 to 17 inches in 
circumference, or about 5 inches in diameter, and weigh 
from 8 to 8f ounces. They are slightly larger than the 
so-called '^playground ball," but of the same soft 
construction. 



Outfit 343 

The official ball specified by the National Indoor 
Baseball Association of the United States is not less 
than i6f nor more than 17J inches in circumference, 
and weighs not less than 8 nor more than 8f ounces. 
A covering of white skin is required, and most of the 
balls have red stitching. Good balls cost from 75 
cents to $1.25 each. 

BAT. — Indoor baseball bats are shorter and smaller 
in circumference than those used in the regular out- 
door game, and with them a ball cannot be sent so far. 

Official regulations call for a bat 2f feet long and 
not larger than if inches in diameter in the largest 
part. The handle may be wound with string or tape, 
or have a rubber tip, to prevent sHpping and to give 
a firm hold. The bat must be made of wood, and may 
be made heavier by a metal rod passed through the 
center, but no loading with lead to give weight is 
permissible. 

Indoor baseball bats cost 40 and 50 cents each. 

BASES. — Bags for marking first, second, and third 
bases are made of canvas, half filled with sand or other 
soft material. They are merely laid in place, not 
fastened, as in the outdoor game. 

Where bases are near walls, padded gymnasium 
mats should be on edge against the wall as a buffer 
for players sHding bases. 

A set of three canvas or duck bases, unfilled, costs 
from $2 to $2.50. 

HOME PLATE. — A rubber home plate, for indoor 
baseball, is 12 inches square, being smaller than in the 
outdoor game, and four instead of five sided. They 
cost 75 cents each. 



344 Indoor Baseball 

DRESS. — Padding at knee and hip, either made in 
the suit or adjustable, is very necessary for base 
runners, to prevent injury in sliding base. 

All players are required to wear rubber-soled shoes. 
The corrugated rubber is best. 

Gloves and mask are rendered unnecessary by the 
soft ball, but are used by many players. 

HISTORY* — Indoor baseball was devised in 1887 
by Mr. George W. Hancock, of Chicago. The need 
for indoor athletic games for the winter season, and 
the necessity of playing in limited space, both indoors 
and out of doors, at all seasons, has led to wide popu- 
larity for the game. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Official Handbook 

National Indoor Baseball Association of the United States; 
Official Handbook, (New York, Spalding's Athletic 
Library.) 

The Game 

Athletic Games for Women. By Gertrude Dudley and Frances 
A. Kellor. (New York, Henry Holt & Company, 1909.) 

GLOSSARY 

See Glossary for Baseball (regular game). 



LACROSSE 



LACROSSE 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Lacrosse is one of 
the most beautiful and highly developed of the out- 
door team games. Its most distinctive features to a 
spectator are that it is played on the run, and that the 
ball is played by throwing and catching with a long 
netted stick, called a crosse, much longer than a 
tennis racket. 

The game is played on a large level field, preferably 
covered with turf. A goal is erected at each end, the 
object of the game for each team of twelve men being 
to put the ball through the opponent's goal. It is 
usually shot through by a throw from a stick, but 
may bound through, or even be kicked through from 
a scrimmage, or get through in any way except by 
being carried. One point is scored for a team for each 
goal made ; the team which has scored the larger 
number of goals at the end of the playing time wins. 
The game is played in 2 halves of 35 minutes each, 
with a 10 minutes' rest between. The teams change 
goals (defend the opposite goal) at the beginning of the 
second half. 

A very distinctive feature of the game is the forma- 
tion or position of the teams. Each team of twelve 
players is lined up from end to end of the ground ; 
that is, from goal to goal, instead of facing each other 
from opposite halves of the field, as in hockey, foot- 
ball, and most other team games. Each player is 

347 



348 Lacrosse 

paired off with an opponent, and usually stands at the 
opening of the game with his left side toward the goal 
he is attacking. There is no offside play, — that is, 
no rules prohibiting a player receiving or playing on 
the ball if he be between it and the opponent's goal. 
Neither are the players confined to any limited terri- 
tory ; but each has distinctive functions. 

An interesting point for spectators to know is that 
the only methods of interference allowed are '^ check- 
ing " and " body-checking.'' Checking consists 
in hitting an opponent's crosse with one's own (allow- 
able only when both are trying to play the ball) , either 
to dislodge the ball or in some other way to interfere 
with his stick play. Body-checking consists in shoving 
a player with the shoulder or hip from the front or 
side, never from behind. Tackling, as used in foot- 
ball, is not allowed, nor any form of interference with 
the hands. The goal keeper is the only one who may 
use the hands to touch the ball and then only to block 
it, not to catch or throw. 

The ball is started in the middle of the field. The ^ 
method of putting it in play is called " facing," and 
consists in two players of opposite teams putting their 
crosses edgewise on the ground and back to back, 
with the ball between them, and on a signal drawing 
each his own crosse rapidly away from the center. 
The ball is thus faced at the center at the opening of 
the game and at the beginning of the second half : also 
after a goal is scored. It is faced in a similar way from 
other parts of the ground at various times (after fouls, 
out of bounds, etc.) through the game, as explained 
in the rules. 



Field 349 

The directions in the following rules are founded on 
the laws of the United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse 
League. 

FIELD. — Lacrosse is played on a large level field. 
This should preferably be covered with turf, as such 
covering is less shppery and makes it easier to pick 
up the ball from the ground with the stick than an 
un turfed field. No boundaries are marked for the 
ground, ground rules (limits) being agreed upon before 
the game by the respective captains. 

DIMENSIONS. — The distance between goals ranges 
from no to 125 yards ; the width is not specified, but 
is understood to be from 50 to 75 yards. 

GOALS. — The goals are placed, if possible, 125 
yards apart, though a minimum distance of no yards 
is specified in official rules. 

The goals consist of two upright poles which must 
be 6 feet above the ground and placed 6 feet apart, 
connected with a rigid top cross bar. 

NET. — x\ttached to this goal, at the rear, is a net, 
pyramidal or cone shaped, extending 7 feet back of the 
goal and staked to the ground all around. The netting 
may not have a mesh of more than i^ inches in size. 
This net is to catch the ball as it goes through and 
helps to determine whether or not a goal has been 
made. 

GOAL CREASE. — The only marking on the ground, 
aside from the twelve-foot circle at the center which is 
used for facing the ball, is a goal crease, which con- 
sists of an outlined square or oblong surrounding 
the goal. This measures 12 X 18 feet, being 6 feet 
in front of and behind the goal posts and 6 feet to 



350 



Lacrosse 



either side of them. No goal scores if the ball is 
hit through from within the crease, or if, when it 
goes through, any attacking player be within the 



<-- --12 Ft. — 


-. ._-__5^ 




Goal Crease A 

1 
1 




A 


1 
\ 
1 

3 
1 






if 

< = 6Ft --^ ■^^<9)%— 6Ft. 

1 


»-^ 




Goal Crease 


§ 


00 


<—. --6Ft. ^^^>% 6Ft. 


^ 




T w 
1 '" 
1 
1 






J 
1 

1 
1 






1 

! 
1 

Goal Crease y 




Ji^ 



DIAGRAM OF LACROSSE GOAL AND GOAL CREASE 

crease. The goal keeper may not be checked while 
within the crease. 



Teams 351 

CENTER CIRCLE. — The only other marking on the 
grounds, in addition to the goal crease is a center 
circle, usually in the middle of the field, measuring 
12 feet in diameter, i.e., drawn with a 6-foot radius. 
The ball is put in play by being faced at the center 
of this circle at the opening of each half and after each 
goal is scored. 

TEAMS. — NUMBER AND NAMES OF POSITIONS. 
— Twelve players constitute the full official number 
for each team. The twelve players of a team, accord- 
ing to their positions, beginning with the home goal, 
are called goal keeper, point, cover point, first 
defense, second defense, third defense, center, third 
attack, second attack, first attack, outside home, 
inside home. 

COVERING. — Each player is said to cover the 
opponent with whom he is paired off, when he is so 
close to him that he could easily interfere with his 
catching or tossing of the ball. In the exigencies of 
the game a player may leave his original protagonist 
to cover some other player, there being no rule as to 
the territory in which any man may play. Good 
team work, however, requires both that a player may 
be depended on to take care of his assigned part of 
the game and also that he use quick judgment as to 
where else he should assist his defense or aUack. 

GENERAL FUNCTION OF PLAYERS. — There is no 
offside play in Lacrosse, and, as above stated, no player 
is confined by rules to any particular territory, except 
that no player but the goal keeper (or any other man 
on his team, when the goal keeper needs must leave 
his place) may stand within the goal crease ; and any 



352 Lacrosse 

goal made while a player of the attacking side is 
within the goal crease is a foul and does not score. 

Each team is divided generally into what are called 
the attack and the defense. The first three players 
for a team (point, cover point, and first defense) are 
the main defense players for a team, next to the goal 
keeper, and the opponents paired off with them (in- 
side and outside home and first attack) are the main 
attack players for the opposing team. The centers 
start the game by facing the ball, and they and the 
other players in or near midfield try to get the ball in 
the possession of their own team and feed it to their 
attacking members. 

DETAIL DUTIES : GOAL KEEPER. — The goal keeper 
usually takes his position at the opening of a game 
about one and one half feet in front of a line drawn 
between the goal posts. His main duty, of course, 
is to obstruct the ball so as to prevent its passing 
through the goal. He may do this with his crosse, 
his hands, or any part of his body. He may not 
catch and throw with the hand, but may block or 
bat the ball with the hand. Should he get possession 
of the ball, he should play it judiciously toward the 
opposing goal. It is usually safer for a goal keeper 
to step away from in front of his own goal to do this, 
rather tha» keep the ball in line for a shot through 
the goal. He may leave the goal or even the goal 
crease at any time if hecessary to assist his defense, 
but his absence from the goal is a dangerous thing 
and should be covered at once by the point or cover 
point. 

The goal keeper, while within the crease, may not 



Duties of Players 353 

hold the ball on his crosse longer than necessary to 
step out of the crease. 

The goal keeper may not be checked within the 
goal crease, but may be checked outside it. 

No player of the attacking team may stand within 
the goal crease and no goal scores if any attacking 
player be within the crease when the ball goes through 
the goal. 

INSIDE HOME. — The inside home stands very 
close to the crease. With the other attack players 
of his side, he shoots for goal, though not so often, 
perhaps, as the outside home. He is paired off with 
the point, and should try to get between point and 
goal, or to entice point to one side so as to give other 
attacking players a better chance to shoot for goal. 
The inside home should be ready to pick up a ball 
parried by the goal keeper and play it again for 
goal. 

He must always remember that no attacking player 
may stand within the goal crease ; that any goal to 
score must be shot from outside the crease ; that no 
goal scores if an attacking player be within the 
crease when the ball goes through the goal. Also that 
the goal keeper may not be checked within the 
crease, but may be checked outside it. 

OUTSIDE HOME. — The outside home, the most 
important attack player, plays very similarly to the 
inside home, and also has very close team work to 
do with this player. He takes the place of the inside 
home when the latter is called away from in front of the 
goal. The outside home makes many shots for goal. 
He is paired off with cover point. 

2A 



354 Lacrosse 

FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD ATTACKS. — These 
players feed the ball to their home men, trying to 
keep it in toward the center of the field, from which a 
goal may more readily be shot, and away from the 
outer boundaries. The first attack may shoot for 
goal, but it is not considered good play for second and 
third attack to do so. The third attack assists second 
in getting the ball for their team when it is faced at 
the center at the opening of the game or at other 
times, being careful to observe the rule that prohibits 
a player's being within lo feet of the ball until it is 
put in play. 

CENTER. — The center starts the game by facing the 
ball, closely seconded by his third attack and third 
defense men, who help him to get possession of the ball. 
His main duty, aside from starting the ball, is to check 
the opponents and feed the ball to his own attack. 
On rare occasions he may help the defense. 

POINT. — Point is a defense man who stands 
nearest the goal keeper. He should keep very close 
to the goal. He is paired off with the inside home, 
but should cover any man who gets near to the goal. 
His object is not only to check the play of such oppo- 
nents, but to keep the men themselves as far away as 
possible from the goal, as long shots are less likely to 
go through, and give the goal keeper a better chance 
to defend. Point should be able to defend the goal, 
and should interchange places with the goal keeper 
whenever the latter is away from his post. An im- 
portant duty of this player is to coach the other players 
on the defense, as he is in a position to see the whole 
field. 



Substitutes 355 

COVER POINT. — Cover point is one of the main 
defense men. He may interchange places with point, 
and even serve as goal keeper in an emergency. He 
usually has a wider range of action than point, though, 
Hke all of the defense men, usually plays within a 
Hmited range. Of course, his main object is to pre- 
vent the attacking players from putting the ball 
through the goal. He is paired off with the outside 
home, but, as with any other players, may check any 
members of the opposing team. He should always 
take the uncovered man coming down the field. 

FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD DEFENSE. — The men 
in these positions have mainly to gain possession of the 
ball and feed it toward their own attack. The third 
defense assists center in getting the ball after it is faced, 
observing the rule about not being nearer than 10 feet 
to the ball at such time. It is not considered good 
team play for any of the defense to try for goal, as the 
hazards of long shots or runs are against an attacking 
team. A defense man, however, if he sees an open- 
ing, will dash toward his opponent's goal with the ball. 

SUBSTITUTES. — At the opening of a game , should 
one team be short the required number of 12 players, 
the Captain of the opposing team may, at his discre- 
tion, drop players until the teams are equal in number, 
though a match game may not be played with less 
than 10 on each team. When a player is dropped to 
equalize the number on the teams, he is designated by 
his Captain and may or may not be from a position on 
the team corresponding to that of the absent player. 

During a Game substitutes may be put in at any 
time, but when this is done the Referee must be 



356 Lacrosse 

notified by both players and the incoming player may 
not come on the field until the player whose place he 
takes, has left it. No player may return to the game 
having once left it. In a tie game no substitutes are 
allowed, except in case of injury, when the Captain of 
the opposing team may choose between dropping a 
player of his own to equalize, or allowing his opponents 
to put in a substitute. 

THE GAME. — CHOICE OF GOALS. — Before a 
game the Captains toss for choice of goals. The 
teams change goals for the second half. 

FORMATION OR LINE-UP. — At the opening of a 
game the goal keeper stands in front of his own goal 
and the other eleven players of a team are arranged 
from end to end of the field, each with his left side 
toward the goal he is attacking. This formation is 
very distinctive of Lacrosse, differing radically from 
most team games, in which the teams usually face 
each other from opposite halves of a center dividing 
line, as in football. In Lacrosse each player is paired 
off with an opponent as follows : 

Team A Team B 

♦ Inside home Goal keeper 

Outside home Point 

First attack Cover point 

Second attack First defense 

Third attack Second defense 

Center Third defense 

Third defense Center 

Second defense Third attack 

First defense Second attack 

Cover point First attack 

Point Outside home 

Goal keeper . Inside home 



Facing the Ball 357 

THE START : FACING THE BALL. — The ball is put 
in play by the two centers by a method called facing. 
This is done at the beginning of each half and after 
each goal scored in the center of the field. 

For facing, the Referee places the ball on the ground 
between and touching the reverse sides of the crosses 
of the two centers ; that is, the crosses are placed 
back to back, overlapping about two thirds the length 
of the netting. Each player must have his left side 
toward the goal he is attacking when the Referee calls 
'' Play I " At that signal, each of these two players 
draws his crosse straight backward toward himself 
{i.e., toward the butt end of the crosse, or side bound- 
aries of the field) . In the twirl of the ball resulting, 
one of these players, or his team, gets possession of it. 
In this play for the ball the center is assisted by his 
third attack or third defense. 

When the ball is faced, no other player may be 
within 10 feet of those facing the ball until it is in play. 

No center player may use a left-handed crosse. 

The ball is similarly faced from other parts of the 
field under other circumstances, as follows : 

FACING AFTER A FOUL that is claimed but disallowed. 
A foul that is disallowed by the Referee is penalized, 
at his discretion, by the player fouled being allowed a 
free throw, or the ball at the point where the foul was 
claimed, or at least 10 yards from the goal. 

FACING AFTER OUT OF BOUNDS. — After going OUt 
of bounds the ball is brought back to the point where 
it left bounds and faced by the nearest two opponents, 
the other players standing where they were when the 
Referee called time. 



3S8 Lacrosse 

FACING AFTER BALL LODGING. — Should the ball 
lodge in a place from which it cannot be removed by 
the crosse, or be caught in the goal netting, it may be 
taken out by hand, by a player who shall face for it 
with his nearest opponent at lo feet within playing 
limits. 

A ball lodging in a crosse must be freed by hitting 
the crosse on the ground, and not with the hand. 

Should any player facing for the ball at other parts 
of the field than the center, use a left-handed crosse, 
which would prevent his facing properly, the ball may 
be put in play at such times by the Referee's tossing 
it between the two players, 

RULES AND POINTS OF PLAY. — MODE OF 
PLAYING THE BALL is by throwing and catching with 
the crosse or stick. This is done nearly always on the 
run, the players advancing the ball by rapid passes 
from one to another. It is unusual for any one 
player to run far with the ball because of the increased 
chance for checking by opponents. 

A ball on the ground should be recovered by stick 
work alone. For a dead ball, this is done by a player's 
drawing the ball toward him with his crosse and 
scooping it up when it is in motion. 

There is no rule against kicking the ball, but it is 
usually resorted to only in scrimmages or similar 
emergencies. On no account may the ball be played 
by the hand. The Goal Keeper is the only player 
who may touch the ball with the hand, and he may 
only bat or block it, not catch or throw. 

No goal may be scored by a ball carried through in 
any way. 



Checking: Blocking 359 

INTERFERENCE WITH OPPONENTS is done by 
checking, body-checking, and blocking. 

CHECKING consists in hitting the opponent's crosse 
with one's own, to dislodge a ball or to prevent his 
catching or picking it up. This may be done, however, 
only when both players are contending for the ball; 
to check an opponent at any other time is a foul. It 
is a foul to detain an opponent's crosse with one's 
hand, leg, or with one's own crosse, or in any other 
way. To use the crosse for what is termed the square 
or cross check is strictly forbidden. This consists 
in charging into a player with one's crosse held in both 
hands so that it will meet his body. 

BODY-CHECKING is the only other permissible mode 
of personal interference with an opponent. Body- 
checking consists in shoving the opponent with the 
shoulder or hip and that only from the front or side. 
To do this from the rear or to body-check an oppo- 
nent into a fence or other obstacle are considered 
most flagrant fouls. No opponent may be charged 
or body-checked after he has thrown the ball. 

Tackling or tripping or checking an opponent with 
the hands, elbows, or feet, are strictly forbidden. It is 
also a foul to use the crosse in any way to strike, trip, 
or body-check. 

BLOCKING. — A player running with the ball may 
be blocked (aside from body-checking) only by getting 
between him and the goal so as to make him dodge. 
One may not, however, block or interfere in any way 
with a player who is in pursuit of an opponent or 
of the ball. Thus a player may not be surrounded 
by players of his team, forming an interference as in 



360 Lacrosse 

football. When two players are in pursuit of the ball, 
one may not keep the other from it by kneeling, lying 
down, or dropping in front of him. There is thus a 
clear distinction between blocking an opponent who 
has the ball in his possession and one who is in pursuit 
of the ball or of an opponent. 

FOULS AND PENALTIES: SUMMARY OF 
FOULS. — THE CROSSE AND ITS USE. — It is a foul 

To take an opponent's crosse or attempt to knock 
it out of his hands in any way unless both are contend- 
ing for the ball. 

To hold or trip an opponent with the crosse. 

To deliberately strike an opponent with the crosse. 

To hold an opponent's crosse with the hands, arms, 
or legs. 

To throw the crosse at a player or at the ball. 

To use the square or cross check. 

To take part in the game in any way without a crosse 
in the hand : any player losing his crosse is out of 
play until he recovers it ; players are permitted, how- 
ever, to change crosses during a game. 

To check the goal keeper while the latter is within 
the bounds of the crease. 

PERSONAL INTERFERENCE. — It is a foul 

To strike, hold or trip an opponent; to push him 
with the hand. 

To wrestle with legs entwined so as to throw him. 

To body-check an opponent from behind (jump at, 
or shoulder him) while he is running for the ball or 
after he has reached it. 

To charge an opponent after he has thrown the ball. 

To forcibly body-check an opponent into a fence. 



Summary of Fouls 361 

BLOCKING. — It is a foul 

To run in front of a player who is trying to get the 
ball, so as to keep him from it until another player 
reaches it. 

To interfere in any way with a player who is in pur- 
suit of an opponent. 

For a player who is trying to get the ball to deliber- 
ately drop, he down, or kneel in front of the opponent 
who is also trying to get it, so as to keep him from the 
ball. 

PLAYERS. — It is a foul 

For any player to move from his position after time is 
called until the ball is again faced. 

To attempt to influence the decision of an Umpire. 

To use profane or obscene language to any player 
or elsewhere. 

To take part in the game in any way without a 
crosse. 

To stand within the goal crease or to be within the 
crease when the ball is put through the goal. 

To check the goal keeper within the crease. 

See also ^^ Personal Interference " and ^' Blocking.'^ 

The goal keeper while within the crease may 
not hold the ball in his crosse longer than necessary 
to step within the crease. 

BALL. — It is a foul 

To play the ball with the hand in any way, except 
for the goal keeper to block it with the hand "(not catch 
or throw). 

To persistently throw the ball out of bounds, lie 
on the ball, or try in any way to detain it, so as to 
prolong the time of a game. 



362 Lacrosse 

PENALTY AND PROCEDURE FOR FOULS. — The 

Referee calls time or blows his whistle for play to 
stop whenever he sees a foul committed or one is 
reported to him by a Captain, provided the player who 
committed the foul succeeds in taking the ball from 
his opponents. For a foul which leaves the ball with 
the opponent fouled or his team, the Referee may not 
suspend play. 

On the Referee's signal all players must stand still 
and remain in their places until the Referee gives the 
signal again to play. The ball must not be touched 
in the interval and should any player have it when 
time is called, he must drop it. 

Should the Referee decide that a foul has been com- 
mitted that has taken the ball away from the team 
fouled, the offense is penalized by allowing the player 
fouled, at the discretion of the Referee, either to have 
a free throw or to face the ball. In no case may this 
be done within 10 yards of the goal. 

For a mistaken claim of foul, the team claiming it is 
penalized by allowing the wrongfully accused player 
a free throw or facing at the discretion of the Referee. 

In addition to the above penalties the Referee has 
the right, at his discretion, to inflict suspension from 
the game on a player committing a foul, or he may first 
warn him and later suspend for a repetition of the 
offense. A player is to be removed from a match at 
once (no discretion allowed the Referee) for (i) 
profane or abusive language to any player or official 
during any game, or (2) for deliberately striking 
another with his crosse or in any other way. 



Time: Score 363 

FREE THROW. — In a free throw the player fouled 
and the one committing the foul are placed in the 
same positions that they occupied immediately before 
the foul was committed, the player fouled having the 
ball on his crosse. At the word '^ Play " from the 
Referee, each is allowed to play in any manner allowed 
by the rules of the game. It will thus be seen that a 
free throw in Lacrosse does not mean the complete 
freedom from possible interference customary for 
a free throw in basket ball or a free kick in football. 
No free throw may be made within 10 yards of the goal. 

SCORE. — TIME : CHANGE OF GOALS. — The 
game consists of two 35-minute halves, with an interval 
of 10 minutes between (70 minutes of actual playing 
time). In estimating time, the intervals are de- 
ducted for fouls or ball out of bounds, from the mo- 
ment the Referee calls time or blows his whistle for 
play to stop, until he again signals for play to begin. 
The teams change goals for the second half. 

GOAL SCORE. — One point is scored for a team for 
each ball which it puts through the opponents' goal. 
The team, which has the higher score at the end of the 
second half wins. 

A ball to score must go through from the front and 
must be shot from outside the goal crease. No ball 
scores if an attacking player is within the goal crease 
when it goes through. 

The Umpire decides whether or not a goal has been 
made. The ball is usually shot or thrown through 
from a crosse, but may be kicked through or bound 
through or go through in any way, except by being 
carried. 



364 Lacrosse 

If the goal defenders send a ball through acci- 
dentally, it scores for the attacking team. If a ball is 
put through by any one not a player, it does not score, 
and must be put in play again at the center. 

Should a goal pole be knocked down during a game, 
the ball scores if it goes within the limits that the pole 
would define, if standing. The Umpire decides this 
point. 

Should the ball enter the goal after time has been 
called for a foul, it does not score. 

Should a goal be made after a foul is claimed but 
before time is called, the goal is scored if the foul is 
not allowed by the Referee or should he decide that 
the foul did not take the ball from the attacking team. 
Should a ball enter the goal after a foul is claimed, 
but before time is called, and the Referee sustains the 
claim of foul and finds that the foul did take the ball 
from the attacking side, the goal is not scored and the 
Referee at his discretion penalizes the offender as for 
other fouls, by granting a free throw to the offended 
side or facing the ball. 

TIE GAMES. — In case of a tie score at the end of the 
playing time, play is continued after an interval of 10 
minutes, for 15 minutes. The team which at the end 
of that time has scored the greater number of goals 
wins. Should the game still be a tie at the end of this 
15-minute period, the Captains decide as to whether 
the game shall be postponed or play continued until 
a goal is scored or the game declared a tie. 

OFFICIALS. — The officials for a match game in 
Lacrosse consist of one Referee, two Umpires, two 
Timekeepers, and two Field Captains. 



Officials 365 

REFEREE. — The Referee is the highest official in 
the game of Lacrosse. He is chosen by mutual con- 
sent; must not be a member of either of the contesting 
clubs (unless by mutual consent) and must be' abso- 
lutely non-partisan. 

The duties of a Referee begin before a -game. 
(i) He must receive from Captains the names of 
their respective teams and learn the Captain's deci- 
sion as to playing bounds ; (2) he must assign the 
Umpires . to their respective goals, which they will 
hold throughout the game ; (3) he must see that 
Timekeepers are on hand ; (4) he must inspect the 
field to see that its condition is proper and all measure- 
ments, including the goals, correct ; (5) he must line 
up the players and inspect them to see that all regu- 
lations are observed as to ball, crosses, and shoes. 

The Referee starts the game at the center, when 
both sides are in position, by placing the ball for facing 
and calling ^' Play ! " or blowing his whistle. He thus 
places the ball at the center, and signals for facing at 
the beginning of each half and after each goal is scored. 
He similarly starts play with facing from other parts 
of the ground, after the game has been suspended for 
fouls or ball out of bounds, but at no time may the 
ball be faced nearer than 10 yards to the goal. 

The Referee suspends play by calling " Time,'' or 
blowing a whistle, whenever he observes a foul or one 
is reported to him by a Captain, unless the player 
who has been fouled or one of his team is still in pos- 
session of the ball ; in that case the Referee may not 
suspend play. 

Should a goal be made before the Referee can call 



366 Lacrosse 

time for a foul, he must decide whether the goal shall 
be allowed or not, or whether the ball shall be faced, 
or the opponents given a free throw. 

Any goal made after the Referee has blown his 
whistle or called time does not score. 

The Referee enforces the penalties for all fouls and 
must therefore be familiar with the fouls and their 
penalties. 

All disputes during a game are settled by the Referee 
and his decision is final. All complaints must be made 
to him by the Captains of the respective teams and 
no other members of a team may enter into discus- 
sion with him, unless at his own request. The Referee 
must hear both sides of a question before making his 
decision. 

Throughout a game the Referee has authority over 
all other oflScials. Should complaint be made against 
the decision of an Umpire, and the complaint be 
proven, the Referee must remove the Umpire and 
appoint a successor, setting aside and reversing the 
decision to which exception was taken. This may 
occur at any time through the game. 

Except in such a case (where the decision of an 
Umpire is questioned) the Umpire's decision as to the 
making of a goal shall be final and must be accepted 
by the Referee. 

The Timekeepers report to the Referee when the 
time of halves has elapsed or at any time through a 
game. When the two Timekeepers do not agree, 
they report the fact promptly to the Referee, who at 
once decides the question. 

The Field Captains are under the control of the 



Officials 367 

Referee as well as the players of their teams, and are 
subject to the same rulings. The Referee may order 
a Field Captain to leave the game for infringement of 
rules, and in case of his refusal to comply, the Referee 
shall declare the opposing team to have won the 
game. 

UMPIRES. — The two Umpires are chosen for a 
match game by the Captains. Their positions are 
directly behind the goals, one for each. They are 
assigned to their respective goals by the Referee, 
before the Captains toss for choice of goals. An 
Umpire remains at the same goal throughout a game, 
not changing when the teams change goals. 

The duty of an Umpire is to decide when a goal has 
been made. This decision is final, and he must give 
it without comment, simply saying '' Goal " or '' No 
Goal." Should a Captain take exception to the 
ruling of an Umpire, the Referee must at once investi- 
gate the matter, and should he find that the ruling was 
unfair, must at once remove the Umpire for the re- 
mainder of the game, and appoint a successor. 

An Umpire must, of course, be familiar with all of 
the rules under which a goal may be scored, as follows : 
A goal may be scored only by a ball passing between 
the goal posts and below the cross bar from a shot 
made from in front of the goal and from outside the 
goal crease and while none of the attacking team are 
within the crease. A ball ^accidentally put through 
by the defending team, scores for the attacking team. 
The ball may be thrown from a crosse, batted, kicked, 
or bound through, or go through in any way, except 
being carried, or thrown by the hand. 



368 Lacrosse 

TIMEKEEPERS. — The rules call for two Time- 
keepers to be appointed, one by each Captain. Their 
duties consist in 'deciding when the 3 5 -minute halves, 
or the full playing time of the game, have transpired. 
The time is estimated from the moment the Referee 
blows his whistle or calls '' Play," for the first facing, 
and in estimating it, deductions should be made for 
any stoppages of actual play, such as those required 
for ball out of bounds, fouls, disputes, or injuries to 
players, for any of which causes the Referee calls time. 
The guide for the Timekeeper is the Referee's signal. 
These interruptions are estimated from the moment 
the Referee calls time or blows his whistle, until he 
signals for play to again begin. Of course a Time- 
keeper should use a stop watch. 

When there is a difference of opinion between two 
Timekeepers they must report this promptly to the 
Referee who at once makes a final decision on the 
question. 

FIELD CAPTAINS. — Each team selects a Field 
Captain to superintend or take general direction of its 
play and players throughout a game. A Field Captain 
must be a member of the Club for whose team he acts ; 
he may or may not be a player of the game. If not 
a player, he may not carry a crosse, or be in the uni- 
form of the team, and in this case the opposing Cap- 
tain must consent to his serving. 

Captains are subject to the authority of the Referee 
and may be expelled from the game by that official 
or violation of rules. 

The Captain's duties begin before a game, when 
each Captain must (a) select a Timekeeper ; (b) give 



Outfit 369 

a list of the players of his team and substitutes to the 
Referee ; {c) decide with the opposing Captain on the 
bounds of the playing field ; (d) toss for choice of 
goals. 

During a game, besides taking general direction of the 
game, it devolves upon a Captain to make all claims 
for fouls to the Referee, no other member of a team 
being permitted to do this. The Captain is the only 
member of a team who may represent his team in a 
discussion with the Referee. 

The Captain may have to decide during a game or 
before it, any questions arising as to substitutes. 

The Captain may request the Referee to remove an 
Umpire whose decision seems to him unfair. 

In case of a tie game, after an extra 15 minutes 
of play, it devolves upon the Captains to decide 
whether a game shall be declared a tie, or play con- 
tinued until a goal is won, or the game postponed. 

OUTFIT. — CROSSE. — The crosse is made from 
a long stick, rounded at one end (the butt) and 
flattened at the opposite end ; the fiat end is drawn 
around in a curve, which forms the end for the widest 
part of the netting. It is thus a curved crook or 
stick. 

The specifications for the size and make of a 
crosse are arbitrary. The crosse may be of any 
length, but must not exceed one foot in width at the 
widest part. The netting must be of catgut or clock 
string or rawhide, not of cprd or soft leather. '' A 
string must be brought through a hole in the side of 
the tip of the turn, to prevent the point of the stick 
from catching an opponent's crosse. A leading string 



370 Lacrosse 

resting on the top of this stick may be used, but must 
not be fastened so as to form a pocket lower down the 
stick than the end of the length strings." A bumper 
or stop may not be used. No metal in any form, 
whether wire or sheet, or any screws are allowable in 
a crosse. 

Each player should have two crosses, well broken 
in, for every game, the alternate to be used in case of 
accident. 

A player without a crosse in his hand is considered 
out of play. 

The best crosses for adults cost from $1.75 to $4.50 
each ; for boys from 75 cents to $3. ' 

BALL. — The ball for lacrosse is made of sponge 
rubber. Its weight is from 4! to 5 ounces ; the size not 
less than 7^ nor more than 8 inches in circumference. 

For match games the home team furnishes the balls, 
three to be given to the Referee at the opening of the 
game, and others as called for. 

Good balls cost $.65 each. 

GOALS. — Upright goal posts measure 6 feet above 
ground and are placed 6 feet apart. 

The uprights are joined by a firm cross bar, above 
which they may not extend. 

NET. — A pyramidal-shaped net is fastened to the 
goal posts and cross bar and extends backward for 7 
feet, where it is fastened firmly to the ground with pegs, 
staples, or bars. This is intended to catch the ball, 
and the mesh of the netting must be small enough to 
do this. 

Goals complete, including posts and net, may be had 
for $30. 



History 371 

DRESS. — Because of the running, light-weight 
clothing is worn for lacrosse. The suit usually con- 
sists of running trousers, jersey, and shoes. 

The official rules specify that the shoes worn must 
be of canvas with flexible rubber soles, with or without 
rubber cleats. 

Padded gloves are sometimes worn by lacrosse 
players to prevent injury to the bones and joints of the 
hands. These have reeds worked in to break the force 
of any blow from an opponent's crosse. They may 
be had for $2 per pair. 

HISTORY. — Lacrosse originated with the North 
American Indians, by whom it was called '^ The ball 
game.'' It was played in all parts of the country, 
apparently, and was substantially the same game in 
different localities, though there might have been some 
differences in the construction of the crosses and balls. 
The game, like most Indian events, was preceded by 
religious rites, invoking the aid of the Great Spirit. 
These consisted partly of an all-night dance around 
the goals, followed by some water rites in the morning. 
From several hundred to one thousand players are 
said to have taken part on each side. It is perhaps 
needless to say that each player did not have an 
assigned part in the game as under the modern 
developed team rules. The squaws entered the 
game, not to play, but to urge on their husbands by 
switching them. 

The modern game of lacrosse, with its improved 
implements, -highly developed skill, dift'erent functions 
assigned to different players, and highly developed 
team cooperation, is the result of an interest taken in 



372 Lacrosse 

the game by the white men of Canada. Dr. George 
Beers of Montreal is credited with having recognized 
the possibiHties of the game and commenced its de- 
velopment in 1850. It is now recognized as the 
national game of Canada. 

The present name was given to the Indian game by 
the French Canadians, who saw in the curved stick 
from which the crosse is made, resemblance to a 
bishop's crozier (la croix). 

The game was introduced into England in 1865 
by Canadian boys at school near Reading. It is 
played in England by Cambridge University teams and 
latterly by Oxford. The game has spread to Aus- 
tralia, South Africa, and other places where English- 
speaking players have carried it. 

The United States took up the game somewhat later 
than the Canadians. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Official Handbooks 

Constitution, By-laws and Playing Rules of the United States; 
Intercollegiate Lacrosse League. Spalding's Athletic Li- 
brary. (New York, American Sports Publishing Company.) 

Laws of Lacrosse of the National Intermediate Lacrosse Union 
of Canada. Issued by the Union at Montreal, Canada. 

The Game 

Lacrosse, the National Game of Canada. By A. G. Beers. 

(Montreal, Dawson Bros., Publishers, 1879.) W. A. 

Townsend and Adams, New York, 1869. 
Lacrosse. By WiUiam Harvey Maddren. Contained in the 

book entitled Lawn Tennis by J. Parmly Paret. (New York, 

The Macmillan Company.) Concise playing directions, 



Glossary 373 

advice and history of the game written from the Canadian 
viewpoint. 

Lacrosse. By F. Sachs. (London, British Sports Publishing 
Co., 1909.) 

From Candidate to Team. By William C. Schmeisser. Capt. 
Johns Hopkins University, Champion Intercollegiate 
Lacrosse Team in 1902. Spalding's Athletic Library. 
Directions and advice for all phases of play, from the 
individuals handling the school to the interplay of the 
members of the team. 

Football, Hockey or Lacrosse Club Book. By Sec's-Pal. (Lon- 
don, W. Bourne, 191 2.) 

Encyclopedia of Sport. Edited by the Earl of Suffolk and Berk- 
shire. (Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Company; 
London, Heinemann.) Edition of 191 1. An excellent 
account of the game with playing directions and rules 
used in England. 

Cricket and Lacrosse. By Henry J. Wehman. (New York, 
1902-1903.) 

B.oy^s Modern Playmate. By J. G. Wood. (London and New 
York, Frederick Warne & Company.) Brief playing 
directions and rules for the game written for boys from the 
English viewpoint. 

History 

Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs and Conditions of 
the North American Indians. By Catlin. (London, 
1841, Vol. n, page 123.) 

Games of the North American Indians. By Stewart Culin. 
(Washington, D.C., Bureau of Ethnology, 1907.) Mr. 
Culin gives the most varied and exhaustive collection of 
accounts of this game among the Indians, from original 
sources, from Catlin and others. 

GLOSSARY 

Attack. In Lacrosse the attack is understood to mean the 
attempt to put the ball through the opponent's goal, or 



374 Lacrosse 

the players who are especially charged with this feature 
of the game. These are the in home, out home, first, second 
and third attacks. Shooting the goal is usually left to 
the first three players mentioned. 

Body-checking is the only means permissible in lacrosse of 
personal interference with an opponent, and consists in 
shoving him with the shoulder or hip from the front or 
side. To do this from the rear is a most flagrant foul. 
No player may be charged after he has thrown the ball 
nor at any time may he be body-checked into a tree, fence, 
or other obstacle. 

Checking consists in hitting an opponent's crosse with one's 
own to dislodge the ball or prevent a catch or throw. 

Check sticks. Checking as above described. 

Checking a throw consists in interfering with a throw from 
an opponent's crosse, by hitting his crosse or stick with 
one's own. 

Cover. One is said to cover an opponent when keeping so 
close to him that he could be easily checked or body- 
checked should the ball come near. 

Crosse. The netted stick used in lacrosse. The terms 
^'crosse" and ''stick" are used interchangeably. 

Defense. The defense in lacrosse consists of those five players 
who stand nearest the home goal and are mainly respon- 
sible, with the goal keeper, for warding off the opponents' 
attack. The defense, besides the goal keeper, consists of 
point, cover point, first, second and third defense. 

Draw. A player is said to draw the ball when in the act of fac- 
ing he succeeds in making it come toward him or his team. 

Draw game is a tie game. 

Facing is the method by which the ball is put in play in 
lacrosse. 

Long throwing means attempting to pass the ball or shoot 
a goal over a long distance. Long throwing is often done 
by the player's turning his back in the direction in which 
the ball is to go and tossing it backward over his head. 

Muff. To muff the ball is to make an imperfect catch, as 
letting it touch the crosse without retaining it. 



Glossary 375 

Passing. In lacrosse this consists in throwing and catching 
the ball with the stick or crosse. 

Picking up. This term is used to denote picking up the ball 
from the ground on the crosse or with it. 

Shot. A ball thrown at the goal is said to be shot at the goal. 

Stand. In Canadian usage this term is used as an equivalent 
for "Time," the call of the American Referee to suspend 
play, as when fouls are claimed, or when a half is finished. 

Stick. A term used interchangeably with crosse. 

Uncover. To get so far away from an opponent that he has 
a good chance to catch or pass the ball, without inter- 
ference. 



LAWN TENNIS 



LAWN TENNIS 

f 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Lawn tennis is a 
ball game played on a diagramed court, which is 
outlined on a level expanse of turf or dirt. It is played 
by two, three, or four persons, who alternately send 
a cloth-covered rubber ball across a net to each other. 
The player, or one of two partners, who fails to send 
the batted ball back over the net to his opponent or 
opponents forfeits a point; that is, the opponent 
scores one point on this failure. 

The ball is batted by means of a wooden racket, 
oval in shape, netted with catgut. 

Putting the ball in play is called serving, and the 
player who does this is called the server ; the opponent 
is the striker-out. The players alternate in serving 
after different games or sets (series of games) . 

The server must stand outside the base line, and to 
one side of the center ; the served ball must fall within 
the service court (small, inner court, bounded by 
service lines) on the diagonally opposite side of the 
net. 

The striker-out must return a served ball (with 
a stroke from his racket) after it has touched the 
ground (bounded) once. The server then in his turn 
returns the ball, and for this may either strike the ball 
while it is in the air {i.e., before it strikes the ground 

379 



380 Lawn Tennis 

— called a volley) or he may strike it after a first 
bound, and thus return it. At no time throughout a 
game is a return after a second bound allowable. 
After the service is returned, either player may volley 
the ball, or return it after a first bound, as he chooses. 

A returned ball may drop anywhere on either half of 
the opponent's court, between the net and the base line. * 

The two players continue to send the ball back and 
forth over the net until one or the other succeeds in 
either placing the ball out of the reach of his opponent, 
or too swiftly for his opponent to return, or in some 
way compels his opponent either to miss the ball 
altogether, or fail to drive it over the net and within 
the proper lines. 

A certain number of points constitute a game, as 
explained under "^ Score." Games are played in sets, 
usually of six each. 

The directions here given follow the Ofl&cial Rules of 
the United States National Lawn Tennis Association. 

Explanations and rules are here grouped under the 
following divisions: (a) COURT; (b) THE GAME, 
VARIETIES OF: (singles, doubles, three-handed; (c) 
SINGLES : court, choice of court or service, the server, 
the striker out, faults, lets, forfeited strokes, summary of 
faults, lets, and forfeited strokes ; (d) DOUBLES, OR 
FOUR-HANDED GAME : court, choice of court or serve, 
the serve, return of ball; (e) THREE-HANDED GAME: 
(/) FORM IN PLAY; (g) SCORE: match games, handi- 
caps; (h) OFFICIALS; (i) OUTFIT; (j) HISTORY; (k) 
BIBLIOGRAPHY; (I) GLOSSARY. 

COURT. — Lawn Tennis is played on either a 



Court 



381 



Base Line 
T 



R-4-^ 



C D 



• Y 



Service Line 
N L_ 



Service 
Court 



Net t 



Service 
Court 



•4 



Service 
Court 



I i'(/l 



Service 
Court 



Service Line 



H G 

1-^ 



_j_ 



U 



*3FtT*J 



36Ft— ---'- ^-ii 

REGULATION LAWN TENNIS COURT 



court of rolled dirt, or on a grass court. In either case 
a diagram is marked on the ground by means of broad, 
white bands of linen or tape. 



382 Lawn Tennis 

DIMENSIONS AND LINES. — The outer lines meas- 
ure 36 by 78 feet. 

Those on the sides are called side lines (Diagram, 
A to H and D to E) and those on the ends, base lines 
(Diagram, A to D and H to E). 

Within this rectangle are drawn two service lines 
(parallel to the end or base lines) and two side-service 
lines (parallel to the side lines) . The service lines are 
drawn across the court from side to side, parallel to 
the end or base lines and the net, 21 feet from the net 
and 18 feet from the base lines. (Diagram, / to K, 
and Lto M.) The side-service lines are parallel to the 
side lines and 4^ feet within them (Diagram, B to G, 
C to F.) The service lines are joined to each other by 
a half -court line, 42 feet long, drawn lengthwise 
through the center, parallel to the side lines (Diagram, 
OtoN) 

NET. — Directly across the center of the court, 
from side to side, is stretched a net. This is sup- 
ported on posts placed 3 feet outside of the side lines. 
(Diagram, R and P). The top of the net at the posts 
is 3^ feet high, and at the center 3 feet. 

BACKSTOP. — It is advisable to inclose a tennis 
court with a backstop of twine or wire netting, from 
7 to 1 2 feet high, to cage the ball. This should not be 
nearer to the side lines than 4 feet, nor nearer than 12 
feet to the base lines. 

THE GAME. —VARIETIES OF SINGLES, DOUBLES, 
THREE-HANDED. — There are three forms of game : 
'^singles,'' played by two players, "" doubles,'' played 
by four players, and a three-handed game. The rules 
for the three- and four-handed games are the same. 



The Server 383 

SINGLES. — The court. — - The two-handed game 
dispenses with the side Hnes and is played on the smaller 
area bounded by the side-service lines. The base and 
service Unes are the same in all games. The three- 
and four-handed games are played on the full court, 
having both side and side-service Unes. 

CHOICE OF COURT OR SERVICE. — In either singles 
or doubles, the players determine by the toss of a coin 
or racket in which end of the court they will play, and 
which side shall have the first serve. The winner of 
the toss may choose the end or the serve, but not both ; 
or, he has a right to insist that the opponent choose 
either one or the other. If the player having first 
choice should elect one end of the court, his opponent 
is not obUged to serve, but may choose to receive. 

THE SERVER. — A player serves throughout one 
entire game. 

The player who serves must stand for service back 
of the base line (the side farther from the net), and 
must make his first serve for every game from behind 
the right half of this line as he faces the court. For 
example, if he serve from behind the base line GF, 
the first serve will be from between UF. His second 
serve will be from the opposite half, between GU, 
and thereafter his service must be alternately from 
these two halves. 

If a player serves from the wrong court, the serve is 
considered incorrect (a fault) and must be repeated 
from the correct court. 

If a server serves out of his turn, any score made by 
the opponent stands, but the service must go at once 
to the player who should have served. 



384 Lawn Tennis 

If a served ball should not be delivered correctly 
in any way, it is called a ^' fault." For two consecu- 
tive faults the opponent scores one stroke. 

A server may, if necessary, have two tries or efforts 
for any one serve. If his first try results in a correct 
serve, he must change to his other court for his next 
serve ; should his first effort result in a fault, he may 
make a second try in the same court, unless the fault 
consisted in serving from the wrong court. 

The server puts his ball in play, or serves it, usually 
with an upward toss, and then strikes it downward 
toward the opponent's court with an overhead stroke 
of the racket. 

Should a server fail entirely to touch the ball with 
his racket, even though he strike for it, the effort does 
not count in any way and he may repeat the trial in 
the same court. Should his racket touch the ball ever 
so slightly, it counts, either as a serve (if properly 
delivered) or — which is more likely from a light hit — 
as a fault. 

A server may receive no assistance from a walk, 
run, jump, or hop. He must stand in one spot, with 
both feet back of, and not touching, the base line. He 
may, in delivering his service, lift one foot, but must 
replace it where it was, so that it could not be con- 
strued as a step ('' foot fault ")• 

The served ball must drop within the diagonally 
opposite court, within or on the service lines ; that is, 
within the court which is bounded on its two ends by 
the net and service line, and on the sides by the half- 
court and side-service lines (Diagram, NSMV, if 
served from between UF). 



The Striker-out 385 

A ball touching a line is considered to be within the 
court. 

If a served ball hits the net, it does not count as a 
serve, even though it afterward strike the ground within 
the proper court. Such a ball is a ^Met '' — that is, 
it does not count in any way, even as a fault. But a 
returned ball that touches the net is considered a good 
return. 

The server must not serve until the striker-out is in 
position and ready. Should he do so, the serve does 
not count in any way, either as a try or a fault : it is a 
let. A striker-out may not claim that he was not 
ready after he has made any attempt to return the 
ball, or after the next service has been deUvered. 

The second game is begun with a service by the 
player who was striker-out in the previous game. He 
serves from behind the right half of his base line 
for his first service, and thereafter throughout the 
game alternates his serves from the left and right 
halves. 

THE STRIKER-OUT. — The striker-out may move 
anywhere within his entire court, but as the served 
ball must drop within his right-hand service court, and 
may be returned only after a bound in that court, it 
is customary for him, in receiving a serve, to stand in 
the outer court on that side of his field, quite well back 
towards the base line, so as to run in for the ball, in 
whatever direction it may bound. 

The ball may not be served until the striker-out 
is ready. After the ball is hit he may not make a 
claim of not ready, and he is considered ready if he 
make any attempt to return the ball. If the ball is 



386 Lawn Tennis 

served before he is ready, it is a let and does not count 
either as a serve or a try. In that case the server 
must repeat the trial. 

The striker-out must return a served ball after it 
has bounded once in his own service court, sending 
it so that if it dropped, it would fall anywhere within 
the opponent's court (Diagram, VW, FG). He may 
not return it before it bounds, as that would be to 
volley it. After this first return from the serve, the 
striker-out and his opponent are both at liberty to 
volley the ball (hit it before it strikes the ground) or to 
play it after a first bound, as they choose. 

When either player fails to return the ball properly, 
the opponent scores one point or stroke. Or, stated 
differently, the player who made the last successful 
return, scores one point. 

It is considered a good return at any time if the ball 
touch the net on its way to the opponent's court, if 
it does not land in the net; but a served ball so 
touching the net does not count ; it is a let. 

The striker-out may not take {i.e.^ play) a fault — a 
ball that was incorrectly served in any way. Such a 
play would not score for him. It is usual to let such a 
ball fall dead. 

After a game has been scored by one player or the 
other (see " Score"), the striker-out becomes server for 
the next game, serving first from behind the right 
half of his base line, and then from the left half, and so 
on alternately; or the players may agree to change 
sides only after each set. In match games, the Umpire 
must be notified of such an agreement before the end 
of the second game. 



Summary of Faults 387 

Players change sides (courts) at the end of the first 
and third games and alternate games thereafter. 

FAULTS, LETS, FORFEITED STROKES. — The term 
^' foul " is not used ordinarily in tennis, as in most 
games, to denote a misplay or infringement of playing 
rules. The terms ^' fault " and 'Met" are used* 
instead, and some misplays have no specific name, but 
are penalized by loss of a stroke (the opponent scores 
one stroke). 

The term fault applies to play of the server only. It 
covers a failure to observe the conditions of a correct 
serve. In other words, it is a misplay on the part of the 
server, either as to his own form of delivery, or as to 
the place where the ball drops. 

The penalty for a first fault is loss of one of the two 
trials at the time of service. After a fault on his first 
try, a server tries again to serve from the same half of 
his court. A second fault from behind the same half 
of the base line {i.e., two consecutive faults) entitles 
the opponent to score a stroke, and the server then 
steps over to the other half of the base line and again 
attempts to serve. 

SUMMARY OF FAULTS : 

Serving from the wrong court. 

Standing without both feet back of the base line. 

Taking a walk, run, jump, hop or step in the act 
of serving. 

Failing to drop the ball in the diagonally opposite 
service court, or on the lines bounding it. 

Ball served into net. 

Touching the ball, ever so slightly, with the racket, 
though not an effective stroke. 



388 Lawn Tennis 

SUMMARY OF LETS. — A play that does not count, 
even as a fault or try, and the stroke is taken over 
again. 

A served ball that strikes the top of the net and then 
falls in the correct court. 

A ball properly served, but when the striker-out 
was not ready. 

The player (whether server or striker-out) ob- 
structed by any accident beyond his control (per- 
manent fixtures around a court, including seats of 
any kind, are not considered accidental obstructions). 

If a let occurs on a server's first attempt at any given 
serve, he still has two tries ; or he still has one more 
try if it happen at the time of his second attempt. 

An opponent does not score on a let, only on two 
successive faults. A fault followed by a let, and then 
by another fault, would score for the opponent, as the 
first fault is not annulled by the let, and the two faults 
are considered to succeed each other. 

LOSS OF STROKE. — For some misplays the offending 
player loses a stroke ; that is, the opponent scores one 
point or stroke. 

The server loses a stroke (i,e., his opponent, the 
striker-out, scores one point or stroke) if 

The server serves two faults in succession. 

Server fails to return the ball. 

Server returns ball so that it drops outside the 
proper court. 

The striker-out loses a stroke (and the server scores 
one) if the striker-out volleys the service instead of 
waiting for the ball to bound. 

Fails to return the ball. 



Doubles, or Four-handed Game 389 

Returns the ball so that it drops outside the proper 
court. 

Either player loses a stroke to the opponent if he 

Touches the net or its fixtures with his person or 
racket while the ball is in play. 

Volley the ball before it has completely crossed the 
net into the opponent's court. 

Touches the ball more than once with his racket on 
same play. 

Ball in play touches him personally, or anything 
worn or carried by him except his racket. 

If a ball in play strike a permanent fixture of the 
court, other than the posts or net (seats of any kind 
are considered a permanent fixture), before it touches 
the ground, the point is lost by the player who made 
the stroke (i.e., his opponent, serves). If, however, 
the ball strikes a permanent fixture after it has 
bounded from the ground on the opponent's side of the 
net, the point counts against the receiver and for the 
player who made the stroke. 

If a player volleys the ball before it has passed the 
net, — in other words, if a player reaches over the 
net and strikes a ball back to his opponent, before it 
has crossed the net, — a point is awarded to the 
opponent. 

DOUBLES, OR FOUR-HANDED GAME. — All 
rules and methods of play in force for singles apply also 
to doubles, as the game is called when two players 
on one side of the net are pitted against two on the 
other side; 

Court. — When four are playing, the entire court 
is used ; that is, the side lines make the side boun- 



390 Lawn Tennis 

daries, instead of the side-service lines as in the two- 
handed game. On the diagram, the court will then 
include all space between AD and HC, 

Choice of court or serve. — This is a choice made, 
as in the singles game, by the winner of a toss of coin 
or racket. The two partners (X and 2, or Y and 4) 
stand on the same side of the net ; they decide between 
them which shall be the first to serve. The opponents 
decide which of the two shall receive the first service. 

The serve. — ^ The server stands anywhere between 
UE or UHj or in corresponding territory on the 
opposite end if he is stationed at that end. 

A served ball must drop within the same inner 
court (diagonally opposite), as in the singles game 
(between service and side-service lines) , but in return- 
ing the ball a player has a larger court into which to 
return it, as it may drop anywhere on either half of 
the opponent's court between net and base Kne, or 
from side line to side line (Diagram, net to AD). 

The same server and striker-out continue to play 
against each other throughout a game, but for the 
second and alternate serves thereafter their partners 
play the service. That is, the service remains on the 
same side of the net throughout a game, but is taken 
alternately by the two partners, and the same rule 
appUes to striking out. 

For the second game, the service is taken by the 
partner of the first striker-out, and the partner of the 
first server becomes striker-out. Courts are riot 
changed by any player until the end of the set. 

Return of ball. — While the serve and its return 
rest with the two players chosen for that purpose 



392 Lawn Tennis 

(they should stand diagonally opposite, as in singles), 
the return of the ball from either side after the service 
is returned may be by either one of the two partners. 
In other words, after the serve and its return, all four 
players may play the ball, until a failure to return, 
provided that only one of the players strike it for each 
return. 

In playing " doubles '' both partners sometimes 
stand near the service line, and they usually volley 
their returns ; or both stand far back in the court ; 
or, lastly (the usual way), the server remains at the 
back of the court, covering that territory, while his 
partner plays near the net, prepared to return all 
balls that can well be handled. 

For example, the opponents Y and 4 decide which 
shall be the first to receive the first service. It may 
be that they will decide upon Y. X now takes posi- 
tion somewhere behind the right half of the base line 
VE and has two trials for his effort to serve into the 
service court MNSV. Behind MNSV stands Y, 
prepared to return the ball after its first bound some- 
where over the net into the doubles court or upon the 
lines that bound it. Either X or 2 returns the ball 
within the confines of the opposite half of the doubles 
court, and this is kept up until one of the pairs fails 
to make a return. X now serves from behind the left 
half of the base line HE into LNWS and 4 now returns 
the ball and the play goes on until a member of either 
team fails to properly return the ball. 

After X has alternately served from one side and 
then from the other until the game is over, 4 now 
serves as did X ; but 4 serves first from behind the 



Form in Play 393 

right half of his own base Hne AD. After that game 
has been won or lost 2 serves, and in the fourth game 
Y serves. Then X again serves and the games go on 
until the set has been won or lost. 

THREE HANDED-GAME. — In a three-handed 
game, the two partners stand on the same side of the 
net, and the single player serves every alternate game. 

All served balls must fall within the service court on 
the diagonally opposite side. 

Balls returned by the single player may drop any- 
where in the doubles court (between sidehnes,net,and 
base line) ; but the two partners in returning a ball to 
the single player, must keep the ball within the singles 
court ; that is, between the side-service Knes, net and 
base line. 

FORM IN PLAY. —As to the handhng of the 
racket, it should be gripped tightly at the end, and the 
forefinger should never be placed along the handle. 
Steady and persistent practice will teach a player how 
to draw his racket along the ball at the time of contact 
and cause the ball to curve in direction, or to take an 
unnatural bound when the ball strikes the court. 
The object of every return is to place the ball where 
an opponent will not be able to reach it, or to send it 
with such speed or with such a curve that the oppo- 
nent's best efforts will be useless. 

For the first service the ball should be sent at great 
speed by an overhand stroke and the second at a lesser 
rate of speed, though no less certainly aimed for the 
proper service court. In an attempt to make the court 
the server should be careful not to overdo his effort 
and '' lob " ; that is, lift the ball high in the air and 



394 Lawn Tennis 

over the net ; for then an opponent can easily place 
the return anywhere he desires in the server's court, 
and he will be more Ukely to place it out of reach. 

In singles, it is usual to stand a foot or so behind the 
service line, after the served ball has been returned, 
and then all balls that easily drop over the net or near 
the side lines can be returned after a bound, whereas 
those aimed at the base line can be volleyed. 

A player should watch his opponent's racket at the 
time it meets the ball, and he will soon be able to 
discern whether the opponent has attempted to easily 
drop the ball over the net, has tried a fast, straight, 
hard return, or by slashing the ball in one direction or 
the other, has attempted to make it curve and take an 
unnatural bound after it has struck the ground. 

SCORE. — A player (or partners) scores on the 
opponent's failure to return the ball, one point for 
each such failure. Either side may score, irrespective 
of which is serving. The first point or stroke scored 
in each game is called 15, the second 30, the third 40 
and the first to score four points wins the game. 
But scoring is not so simple as this might appear. If 
both opponents have scored one point, the score 
stands 15 all; or if both have tallied two points, 30 
all ; but if both have made three points, it is called 
deuce . 

When the game has gone to deuce , neither one can 
win the game by making one additional point. Two 
consecutive points must be made to win the game. 
If, after deuce, one player makes an additional point, 
his score is called advantage. If he makes the next 
point, he wins the game ; if he loses it, the score goes 



Score 395 

back to deuce and so on, until one or the other makes 
two consecutive points. 

When the server wins the first point after deuce, it is 
called vantage-in ; when the striker-out wins the first 
point after deuce it is called vantage-out . 

The player who first wins six games wins a set 
unless both players have won five games, when the 
score is games all. Then, as the case of deuce in a 
single game, one or the other must win two consecu- 
tive games to win the set. 

If a player wins the game after games all, his is the 
advantage game and he needs must win the next 
game to win the set. If he loses, the games again 
stand at games all, as before. 

Love is a term in tennis that signifies naught when 
applied to the server. 

Love all means that neither side has served a point. 

Love fifteen is the score when the server has made 
no point and the opponent one. 

Love thirty is the score when the server has made 
no points and the opponent two. 

Love forty is the score when the server has made no 
point and the opponent three. 

Love set is the score when either one of the players 
has not won a game, while the other has won six 
games. 

The server's score is always mentioned first. In' 
the case given above, the server's score is " Love." 

In the three- and four-handed games, partners score 
as one person. 

The Referee of a tennis match, in order to make no 
mistake, usually uses a score card. There are many 



396 



Lawn Tennis 



forms, one of the simplest of which is that which 
follows. 

In the first column is placed the names of opposing 

players or clubs. Then 
follow columns labeled 15, 
30, 40, Deuce, and two la- 
beled Game. If, for ex- 
ample, A. Burroughs were 
competing against B. 
Trowbridge, the check 
next to Burroughs' name 
signified that Burroughs 
is '' serving." When Bur- 
roughs earned his first 
point, a check was placed 
in column ^^ 15.'' Trow- 
bridge then tallied and a 
check was placed in the 
corresponding column next 
to Trowbridge's name. 

Burroughs then made 
three successive points, 
the last of which w^ere 
placed in the first of 
the two columns labeled 
" Game," to signify that 
he won the game. 

The second game went 
to " Deuce " and then Trowbridge taUied the two 
winning points that led to the placing of a check in 
the second of the two columns labeled '^ Game " to 
signify that Trowbridge earned one. 



PUYERS 


15 


30 


40 


DEUCE 


GA 


^E 


+ A. Burroughs 


1/ 


/ 


v 




v 




B. Trowbridge 


• 












A. Burroughs 


v^ 


v/ 


V 








+ B. Trowbridge 


y 


V 


v^ 


v' v' 




/ 


+ 
























































4- 














+ 










































+ 














+ 




























+ 














+ 










































4- 














+ 










































+ 














+ 










































+ 














+ 










































+ 






















SET. 







SCORE CARD FOR LAWN TENNIS 



Match Games: Handicaps 397 

Each game is thus scored, until the set is won or lost 
as the case may be. 

MATCH GAMES. — For a tournament, sanction 
must be given by the governing body of the county, 
in which it is held, especially if any championship 
titles are being decided. A printed circular should 
give all details, including time and place of play, 
amount of entry fee, prizes, names of officials, and 
should tell when and where the draw is to be made.' 
By the latter is meant, the placing of all names on slips 
of paper, and the drawing of those names, so that the 
pairing off shall be a matter of luck at the time of 
drawing. 

In a contest there may be no intermissions in the 
play, except a seven-minute rest after the third set 
if desired. For unavoidable accidents a tw^o-minute 
interval only is allowed. The Referee may postpone 
a match on account of darkness ; when resumed, the 
previous score stands, and (after any interval of more 
than an hour) the player has choice of court who 
finished playing in the court that was first chosen. 

HANDICAPS. — Very often players in a tournament 
receive handicaps, which are assigned by the Referee. 
These handicaps are termed odds. These odds are 
given for each group of six games. A player who 
receives a handicap of one stroke is given that point 
or 15 at the beginning of the first even game, i.e., at 
the beginning of the second game. A player who 
receives two points is given one of them at the begin- 
ning of the second and the other at the beginning of 
the fourth, or second even game. When there are 
no more even games, — that is, after the third of, say, 



398 Lawn Tennis 

a five-point handicap (called y^) has been given out, 
— then the fourth point is given at the beginning 
of the first game and the fifth at the beginning of the 
second odd game, and so on. 

Sometimes one, two, or three strokes are owed by a 
stronger player at the beginning of every set ; that is, 
before he is credited with 15, he must have previously 
made one, two, or three points or strokes. 

OFFICIALS. — It is not usual to have ofificials 
serve in any capacity for lawn tennis for any except 
tournament games. For tournaments a Referee, 
Umpire, and seven Linesmen are appointed. 

REFEREE. — The Referee is appointed by the Com- 
mittee of Arrangements in charge of a tournament. 

The Referee's duties are to appoint the Umpire 
and Linesmen for each match, make up the program 
for the day, and assign the courts. 

Any question of law (not of fact) is decided by the 
Referee ; for example, whether or not the ball touched 
the net and bounded into a certain place inside the 
court is not for the Referee to decide ; but if a ques- 
tion of rules is raised, it is the duty of the Referee 
to decide what the law is covering those particular 
circumstances, so that the point may be awarded 
to one team or the other. He also keeps all final 
records of the tournament. 

UMPIRE. — There is one Umpire ; he is appointed 
by the Referee. His duties are to 

(i) Announce handicaps before the game begins. 

(2) Judge of, and make decisions on, the facts of 
all plays, except as to whether or not a ball touched 
within or without the Hues. The facts he will judge 



400 Lawn Tennis 

are, for instance, such as whether the ball was hit 
before or after it took a second bound; whether 
the ball went over, under, or touched the net (final 
decision on this point, however, is left to the Lines- 
men). 

(3) Announce each point directly after it is made, 
and the score after each game. 

(4) Announce when players should change sides 
and when the time for a rest between sets has ex- 
pired. 

LINESMEN. — There are usually seven Linesmen 
appointed for all important match games, one official 
for each line. A Linesman decides whether or not a 
close ball struck upon, within, or without the line 
to which he is assigned, and he it is who must announce 
the fact. It is also the duty of the man at the base 
line AD or HE to announce whenever a server at the 
beginning of the game steps over either line while 
striking the ball. 

OUTFIT. — The ball used is made of rubber filled 
with air under pressure. The rubber is covered with 
white cloth. The official ball is 2^ inches in diameter 
and weighs 2 ounces. These can be purchased for 
from $3 to $6 per dozen. 

The racket is an oval-shaped frame of wood, at- 
tached to a handle about 18 inches long. Across the 
oval frame are interlaced catgut strings. A man 
uses a racket weighing from 14 to 14 J ounces ; a 
woman, a racket weighing 13 or 13! ounces. A good 
racket can be purchased for $5 ; the price ranges 
from $2 to $10 each. 

Racket presses in which to keep rackets and pre- 



Outfit 401 

vent warping incident to a change in weather condi- 
tions, cost from 75 cents to $2.50 each. 

Markers and tapes. — Roller markers, for lining 
the court with either wet or dry lines, cost from $1, 
to $5 each. 

White linen tape, with wooden staples and pins 
for fastening to the ground, saves remarking after 
rain. A set complete for a full-sized tennis court 
(for '' doubles '0, $3 to $6 per set. 

The net should be 3 feet high at the center and 
3 feet 6 inches at the posts. A band of white canvas, 
2 to 3 inches wide, on a rope, should run along the top. 
Tarred nets withstand the action of wind and rain 
better than ordinary netting. Nets cost from $1 to 
$8. 

Posts, held upright against the pull of the net by 
means of guy ropes, are often used ; or, better still, 
•posts are firmly sunk in the ground. By means of 
ratchets on the posts, the middle of the net can be pre- 
vented from sagging lower than 3 feet. Posts so 
furnished can be purchased for from $7.50 to $20 
per pair. 

Backstop . — Nets of twine for backstops, 50 feet 
long and 7 or 8 feet high, may be had for from $2.50 
to $4.50 each. Wooden posts for these, with guy 
ropes and pegs, cost about $3.50 per pair. 

The dress of a player should be loosely fitting and of 
such a character that the movement of the hmbs is 
not impeded. Many players always wear sleeves 
that are short and loose. The shoes should be rubber- 
soled and fit snugly. No heels should be worn on a 
tennis court. If the sun interferes, a peaked cap is 



402 Lawn Tennis 

useful. Some players wear a band around the head, 
covering the forehead to prevent perspiration from 
dropping into the eyes. 

HISTORY. — Lawn tennis is said to be an adapta- 
tion of the indoor court tennis. Some authorities 
maintain that it is a descendant of an old outdoor 
French game, played with a cork ball and batted by 
hand over a mound of dirt two feet high. In 1874 
Major Walter C. Wingfield of the British Army 
patented the game. At that time the court was 
shaped like an hourglass and the net at its center 
more than a foot higher than our nets at the present 
time. 

The United States Lawn Tennis Association is 
the governing body in the United States, and the 
English Lawn Tennis Association is now the national 
governing body in England. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Official Handbook 

Spalding^ s Official Lawn Tennis Annual. Spalding's Athletic 
Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Com- 
pany.) 

The Game 

Uow to Play Lawn Tennis. By Frederick B. Alexander. 
Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American 
Sports Publishing Company.) Illustrated from moving 
pictures of the author. 

Great Lawn Tennis Players; Their Methods Illustrated. By 
George W. Beldam and P. A. Vaile. (London, Macmil- 
lan & Company, Limited.) Illustrated by 229 action- 
photographs in moving pictures. 



Glossary 403 

The Science of Lawn Tennis, By Edward Bury Dewhurst. 

(Philadelphia, Innes & Sons.) Detailed instruction and 

advice; well illustrated. 
Lawn Tennis. By Reginald Frank and H. L. Doherty. (New 

York, The Baker & Taylor Company.) An excellent 

working manual of the game; detailed instructions on 

strokes ; courts ; etc. 
Tennis for Girls. By Miriam Hall. (San Francisco, A. M. 

Robertson.) 
Tennis Tactics. By Raymond Demorest Little. (New York, 

Outing Publishing Company.) 
Racquets, Tennis, Squash. By E. H. Miles. (New York, D. 

Appleton and Co., 1903.) 
The Complete Lawn Tennis Player. By A. Wallis Myers. 

(Philadelphia, G. W. Jacobs & Company.) With ninety 

illustrations, including many special action-photographs. 
Lawn Tennis, Its Past, Present and Future. By J. Parmly 

Paret. (New York, London, The Macmillan Company.) 

To which is added a chapter on Lacrosse by William 

Harvey Maddren. 
The Woman's Book of Sport. By J. Parmly Paret. (New 

York, D. Appleton and Co.) 
The Strokes and Science of Lawn Tennis. By P. A. Vaile. 

Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American 

Sports Publishing Company.) 
Modern Lawn Tennis. By P. A. Vaile. (New York and 

London, Funk & Wagnalls Company, 191 5.) Illustrated 

by explanatory diagrams and action-photographs. 
On the Court and Of. By Anthony F. Wilding. (New York, 

Doubleday Page Company.) With fifty-eight illustrations. 
Lawn Tennis; Revised Hints to Beginners. By George Wright. 

(Boston, Mass., Wright and Ditson.) 

GLOSSARY 

Alley. The space between the side-service Hnes, which bound 

singles, and doubles court. 
Backhand. Stroke taken by reaching across the body to 

the left side, with the racket in the right hand. 



404 Lawn Tennis 

Backstop. The netting around a court that prevents the 

balls rolling far. 
Base line. The boundary line at the end of a court, behind 

which the server stands when serving the ball. 
Court. The ground inclosed within the base and side lines, 

upon which the game is played. Also usually includes 

the ground immediately surrounding the lines. 
Cut. The act of drawing the racket across the ball at the 

time of contact, resulting in a twist or spin. 
Deuce. The score when both players, or both pairs of players, 

have earned three points. 
Doubles. A game in which two players are pitted against 

an opposing pair. 
Fault. Failure to properly serve a ball. 
Foot fault. Violation of service rule covering position of 

feet, at time of service. 
Gallery. The onlookers. 
Games all. The score when both players have won five 

games each. 
Gut. The stringing on the racket. 
Half-court line. The line dividing the right from the left 

service court. 
In play. When neither player has earned the point being 

played for and the ball is still in motion. 
Lawford lob or stroke. In this country a stroke directed 

at a ball near the ground, that lifts the ball over the net 

and at the same time gives it an unnatural downward 

curve. 
Let. a stroke that does not count in any way. 
Linesman. An official, who judges whether or not the ball 

struck within, without, or upon, a certain line. 
Love. A term that signifies naught, when applied to the score. 
Love set. The score when one of the players has not won a 

game, while the other has won six. 
Mixed doubles. A term used when a man and woman play 

against a man and woman. 
Out. The ball is out when it has struck without the proper 

boundary lines. 



Glossary 405 

Racket. The bat, with which the ball is struck. 

Side line. One of the two lines that inclose the sides of the 

doubles court. 
Service. The act of striking the first ball over the net into 

the service court. The method of putting the ball in 

play. 
Service court. The inner court, inclosed by the service, 

side-service and half -court lines, and the net. Any served 

ball must fall within the service court diagonally opposite 

to the server. 
Service line. The line across the court, twenty-one feet 

from the net. A served ball must fall within this line. 
Singles. A tennis game in which one player is pitted against 

a single opponent. 
Stop-volley. A stroke that stops the progress of the ball 

and makes but feeble attempt to return it, so that the ball 

will barely drop over the net. 
Striker-out. The player who receives the service and 

returns it. 
Take. To take a serve or a fault is to make a return play on 

the ball after such serve or fault. 
Tape. The canvas across the top of the net. 



POLO (EQUESTRIAN) 



POLO (EQUESTRIAN) 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Equestrian Polo 
is the most picturesque and beautiful of the major 
ball games. It is played by two mounted teams of 
two, three, or four players each, — usually four. 
The ball is played entirely with long, wooden sticks, or 
mallets, with which the players attempt to drive it 
through the opponent's goal. The action is very 
rapid. 

To the interest of other ball games, this adds the 
skill of horsemanship and the remarkable maneuver- 
ing of the ponies, which are usually so highly trained 
as to seem almost human in their understanding of 
what is expected of them. 

The following description of the game is based on 
the official rules of the Polo Association. They are 
for the outdoor game, with the few differences for the 
indoor game noted in italics. 

FIELD, —DIMENSIONS AND LINES. — A regula- 
tion field should be about 300 yards long and 150 
yards wide. The end or goal lines are marked with 
lime, and the sides are inclosed by boards, called 
guards, that project 10 inches above the level of the 
field. 

GOAL. — A goal at each end of the field is marked by 
two goal posts, made of papier-mache, canvas, or other 

. 409 



410 Polo (Equestrian) 

light material that will easily break in collision, and 
so avoid accident. These are placed on the end or 
goal lines, one post 1 2 feet on each side of the center ; 
the posts are thus 24 feet apart. Each post is sur- 
mounted by a flag. 

Only the players and the Referee may be on the 
field during a game. 

TEAMS. — There are two teams of 2, 3, or 4 players 
each; 4 is the usual number for outdoor games. 
{Indoor games, j players only.) Each team elects one 
of its number as Field Captain. 

SUBSTITUTES. — Each team is allowed one sub- 
stitute who may take the place of an injured or dis- 
qualified player. {Indoor games, one or more sub- 
stitutes allowed,) 

A player who leaves the game may not return to it, 
except to take the place of a disabled player, or one 
disqualified for infringement of rules. 

In estimating handicaps for a substitute, the higher 
number is counted, whether it belonged to the sub- 
stitute or the player he replaces. 

FORMATION OF PLAYERS. — When the ball is 
thrown in, the two teams face each other in opposing 
lines, each on its own side of tKe field, looking toward 
the opponent's goal, as shown in the diagram, with 
the exception of one player of each team who takes a 
position nearer his own goal. After the ball is in 
play the positions change rapidly, and while any player 
may go anywhere on the field, each assumes a partic- 
ular responsibility in the game. 

When four players are on a team, one takes a place 
far back on the field near his own goal ; he is called the 



Formation of Players 



411 



Back. In consecutive order in front of him come 
Number 3, Number 2, and, finally, nearest the op- 
ponent's goal, Number i. 

Goal Judge 



r- 



Scorer • 
Timer • 



End Line 



End Line 



-450 Ft. -^ - 



3 



O 

3 



24 Ft. 



• Back 



2 



O 
2 



1 
# 



o 

1 



OBack 



4-^ A 



® Referee 



# Goal Judge 
POLO FIELD AND POSITION OF PLAYERS AT START OF GAME 

It is the duty of No. i (a) to keep the opposing 
Back covered; that is, to prevent his playing the 



412 Polo (Equestrian) 

ball ; and (b) to be prepared to ride back and take the 
position of No. 2, as needed. Nos. i and 2 should be 
accustomed to receive the ball from No. 3 for a quick 
dash or shot toward the opponent's goal. 

No. 3 and Back should also work together and be 
prepared to exchange positions when occasion arises. 
No. 3 should be able accurately to drive the ball to 
either side of No. 2, and be prepared to ride into the 
Back's position when the latter rides toward his own 
goal. A Back should but rarely leave his position 
as goal guard to attempt brilliant individual runs. 

Any player must be able to strike the ball ac- 
curately while traveling at top speed. Years of 
practice are required for proficiency. 

ELIGIBILITY. — The official rules as to eligibility 
are strict. No member of a club that is afiiliated 
with the Polo Association of America may play with 
or against a club that is not a member. No player 
may play with any other team except that represent- 
ing his own club, unless he have received the written 
consent of the Committee of the Polo Association, and 
of the Captains of the teams entered in the tournament. 

A player may be handicapped at one time with 
only one organization, and he may not play on more 
than one team for the same prize. 

THE GAME. — choice of ends. — The Field 
Captains toss a coin to determine which shall choose the 
end of the field in which his team will begin the game. 

Thereafter the teams change ends after every goal 
scored. 

PUTTING BALL IN PLAY. — Before the game begins, 
Nos. 1,2, and 3 line up, facing each other from oppo- 



Knock-In 413 

site sides of the center of the field. Each Back stands 
behind his own team. Each four faces the opponent's 
goal. The Referee stands at the side line prepared 
to put the ball in play by throwing it between the two 
lines. On the Referee's whistle, the Timer strikes a 
gong as a signal for the game to begin, and the Referee 
tosses the ball in toward the center of the field. 

The ball is put in play similarly at the center of the 
field after every goal made and at the beginning of 
every period. After going out of bounds the ball is 
also put in play in the same manner, but at the part 
of the field where it went out. 

Should the Referee stop the game for a foul or acci- 
dent, he again puts the ball in play by a throw-in 
toward the center of the field, from the place where 
the accident or foul occurred. For this, the players 
line up as for all throw-ins. 

START. — Instantly when the ball is thrown in, 
the ponies dash toward the ball, in such a position 
that their riders will be enabled to try a shot for or 
toward the opponent's goal. 

The ball travels back and forth, until one side or 
the other succeeds in sending it, rolling, bounding, or 
flying, between or over the opponent's goal posts. 
It must be entirely over the goal line and not touch- 
ing it, to score a goal. 

KNOCK-IN. — When the ball goes over the end 
line outside of the goal (that is, between a goal post 
and side line) , the defending side has the privilege of a 
knock-in. By that term is meant that a defender of 
the end that was crossed may place the ball on the 
end line at the point where it went out, but not nearer 



414 Polo (Equestrian) 

than lo feet to the goal posts or side guards, and 
knock it into the field of play. No opposing player 
may be nearer to the ball than 50 feet until it is hit. 
Should the player who takes the knock-in delay his 
play, the Referee may put the ball in play by throw- 
ing it in. 

SAFETY. — If the defender of a goal send the ball 
over his own goal line, either accidentally or purposely, 
it is called a safety, provided that after leaving his 
mallet it was not hit nor deflected by anything else 
except the ground. For making a safety, a team's 
score is reduced by j point. 

OUT OF BOUNDS. — A ball sent over the side lines 
is out of bounds. Such a ball is again put in play 
with a throw-in by the Referee, as at the opening of 
the game. The line-up of the teams, however, instead 
of being at the center of the field, is opposite the point 
where the ball went out, and at that point the Referee 
stands outside the side boards, to throw it in. 

TIME. — The game is played in periods of 7I minutes 
each. The number of these periods varies with the 
number of players on the teams. 

For 4 players on a team, the game is played in 
8 periods of 7^ minutes each, with a 3-minute rest 
between all but the fourth and fifth periods, when a 
7-minute intermission is allowed, in which the ponies 
are unsaddled. A warning signal for saddling horses 
is given 3 minutes before the 7-minute 'intermission 
is over. 

When 3 players only are on a team, the game is 
played in 6 periods of 7^ minutes each, with 3-minute 
rest periods between. 



Method of Playing the Ball 415 

When two players only are on a team, the game is 
played in 4 periods of 7^ minutes each, with 3-minute 
rest periods between. 

{Indoor game, unless otherwise agreed, 2 periods of 
10 minutes each, with interval of j minutes between.) 

At the end of each y^-minute period, despite the 
fact that the gong has sounded, play goes on until the 
ball. has gone out of bounds, or has struck the side 
boards. This extra time is taken from the next period. 
This rule does not apply to the last period, when play 
stops at the stroke of the gong. In case of a tie, the 
teams go on playing 7^ -minute periods until a goal, 
safety, or foul is made, which determines the game. 

(For ties and unfinished game, see ^^ Score.'') • 

METHOD OF PLAYING THE BALL. — The ball is 
played entirely by hitting with a. mallet while the 
player is mounted. It may be dribbled (carried 
along with a series of light strokes) or driven with hard 
strokes ; but it may not be played with the hand, or 
held or struck with any part of the person. 

Interference may be by blocking the ball with one's 
person or pony, except that the ball may not be held 
in the hand, lap, or arm ; or, within certain restrictions, 
interference may be by crooking the opponent's mallet 
(i.e., hooking it with one's own mallet). Crooking 
may be done only when the opponent is striking at 
the ball, and when the player crooking is on the same 
side of the opponent's pony as the ball, or else in a direct 
line behind his pony. A player may reach in front 
of or behind an opponent's pony to hit the ball 
(not allowed in indoor game), but not to crook his 
mallet, and must not, in so doing, hit the opponent 



41 6 Polo (Equestrian) 

or his pony with the hand or mallet. Indeed, to so 
hit them is illegal throughout the game. 

As to riding, a player wishing to play on a ball in 
motion should follow the line of direction of the ball 
before attempting such play, as the rules give right 
of way to such a player in preference to one riding in 
on this line at an angle. This applies both to team 
mates and opponents of the player who last hit the 
ball. This player (who last hit the ball) always has 
right of way , unless another player can enter on the 
line of the ball's direction at a safe distance in ad- 
vance of the obstructed pony. 

Opponents trying to gain possession of a ball in 
motion may do so as indicated above. Should 
several players be trying at once for such a ball, the 
right of way belongs to the one who is most nearly 
following the line taken by the ball. All of these 
rules prevent dangerous crossing in front of a player 
riding rapidly. 

It is permissible to cross the line of a player who has 
right of way, but this must be at a perfectly safe dis- 
tance. One may pull up in front of (facing toward or 
away from) such a player, at a distance that will 
enable him to pull up also, but one may not pull up 
across his path at any distance. 

When two players are riding toward each other, 
they must pass the ball on the right (off) side. 

The rules forbid any personal attack on an opponent, 
such as seizing him with the hands, or pushing, except 
to push him with the shoulder, the elbows being held 
closely at the sides. 

Danger in riding is carefully guarded by allowing 



Summary of Fouls 417 

crossing in front of another pony, or pulling up in 
front of him, only when at a safe distance. Dan- 
gerous or reckless riding is forbidden. 

Ponies are protected by the forbidding of cruel use 
of spurs and hitting with the mallet. 

FOULS AND THEIR PENALTIES. — Fouls are pe- 
nalized by deducting from the score of the offending 
team a half goal (half point). The Referee, at his 
discretion, may, in addition to this score penalty, 
disqualify a player for that game, excluding him 
therefrom. 

Should a player be injured by the foul of an oppo- 
nent, so that he has to leave the game, the offended 
team may choose between putting in a substitute, 
or requiring that a player of the offending team also 
leave the game. The latter method is usual only 
when no substitute is available. For this purpose, 
a player is selected who is a somewhat better player 
than the one injured ; that is, one whose handicap 
is next higher than that of the injured player. 

The Referee may stop the game or not at his dis- 
cretion when a foul is committed, the time of such 
suspension not being included in the estimate of play- 
ing time. 

The Referee announces to a player, and to the Ofl&cial 
Scorer, whenever a foul is to be scored. He may do 
this for fouls reported to him as well as for those that 
he sees personally, and whether or not a claim is 
made by the offended player or team. 

SUMMARY OF FOULS. — 

Riding. — Dangerous, reckless, or careless riding. 
The following examples of forbidden riding are offi- 

2E 



4i8 Polo (Equestrian) 

dally specified : " Bumping at an angle dangerous 
to a player or to his pony. Zigzagging in front of 
another player riding at a gallop." 

To cross a player who has right of way at any but a 
very safe distance. 

To pull up at any distance across a player having 
right of way, or to pull up in front of him, except at 
such a distance that the other player will have un- 
doubted time to pull up also. 

To fail to leave the ball on the off (right) side when 
two opposing players are riding toward each other. 

Ponies . — To strike one's own pony with the 
mallet intentionally. 

To strike an opponent's pony with hand or mallet. 

To touch an opponent's pony with the mallet, while 
reaching across, in front of, or behind such pony to 
play the ball. 

To endanger opponent's pony by crooking mallets 
in front of or behind, over or under him while playing 
the ball. 

To make cruel use of spurs. 

To use blinkers, or spurs with rowels, except by 
permission of Committee. 

Players. — To seize, strike, or push an opponent 
with any part of the body except the shoulder, and 
then the elbow must be held close to the side. 

To strike an opponent with the hand or mallet. 

For dismounted player to strike the ball. 

To secure a mallet or pony, except by riding to end 
of .field for it. 

To be assisted in any way by any person coming 
on the field for that purpose. 



Score 419 

Playing the ball. — To hold, strike, or hit the ball 
with any part of one's person, except that one may 
block the ball with person or pony. 

To strike the ball if dismounted. 

To crook (hook with one's own mallet) an opponent's 
mallet when the latter is not striking the ball. 

To crook the opponent's mallet unless on the same 
side of the opponent's pony as the ball, or in a direct 
line behind ; the mallet must not then be under or 
over the opponent's pony. 

To crook an opponent's mallet while reaching across, 
in front of, or behind his pony. 

ACCIDENTS. — The play may be stopped for any 
of the following-named accidents : 

Accident to player. 

Accident to pony. 

Accident to pony's gear, if the latter is dangerous 
to a player. Broken stirrup leather, curb chain or 
martingale are not considered dangerous unless 
liable to trip a pony. 

Broken ball. 

Ball trodden in ground so as to be rendered un- 
serviceable. 

Ball striking Referee or his pony so as to make a 
serious difference in the result of the game. 

For any accident, the Referee may stop the game 
and throw in another ball from the point where the 
accident happened toward the middle of the field, the 
players being Kned-up as for the opening throw-in. 

SCORE. — Goals . — One point is scored for every 
goal. A goal is made whenever the ball is driven 
entirely across the opponent's goal line between the 



420 Polo (Equestrian) 

goal posts ; also if it goes over the inner half of a goal 
post. 

A goal made on a foul play (directly or indirectly) 
does not score. 

Fouls. — A half point (half goal) is deducted from 
a team's score for each foul committed by one of its 
members (called minus one half). 

Safety . — One quarter point is deducted from a 
team's score for a safety (minus one quarter). 

The team wins whose score is the higher at the end 
of the last period, after all penalties for safeties and 
fouls have been deducted. 

Ties . — If the score is tied at the close of the last 
period, the game is continued in y^-minute periods, 
with 3 -minute intermissions, until the score is decided 
by a goal, safety, or foul. For such continuation of 
play, the .ball is thrown in at the center of the field as 
for the beginning of all other periods. {Indoor game, 
continued, after a tie, in 5-minute periods, and 5- 
minute intervals.) 

Game interrupted . — A game stopped by storm, 
darkness, or other cause, so that it cannot be concluded 
on the same day, may be resumed on another day, 
with the ball placed where it was when play stopped. 
Or, the score may be decided by agreement between 
the Captains, or entirely by the Referee. 

OFFICIALS. — These consist of a Referee, one 
Timer and one Scorer, two Goal Judges, and a Field 
Captain for each team. {Indoor game, two Referees 
and no Goal Judges. One Referee is selected by each 
Captain. The one selected by the home Captain is in 
charge of the game, judges all play on the field, goals, 



Officials 421 

fouls, score; his decision is final. The visiting Referee 
judges of play and fouls on the side lines, and reports 
to the Field Referee all of these, and all other fouls the 
other may not have observed. This report is made at 
the end of periods, or when play has been otherwise 
stopped.) 

REFEREE. — In the outdoor game this official 
is agreed upon by the two Field Captains. 

The Referee presides at a game and is its head or 
chief official. He starts the game by throwing in the 
ball from the middle of one of the side lines towards 
the middle of the field between the two lines of players. 

He similarly puts the ball in play after it has been 
out of bounds, by throwing it in from the point where 
it went out. 

The Referee's whistle is the signal for the Timer to 
sound the gong for play to begin, and his whistle is 
the signal for play to stop after fouls or accidents, 
though stopping the game for these causes is at his 
discretion. 

The Referee's judgment is final as to all facts of play 
during the game ; he is not the final authority on 
eligibility of players, or ponies and handicaps. 

The Referee awards a half-point penalty to the 
side offended, when a foul is committed, and, at his 
discretion, may suspend a player. When a foul is 
committed, he may stop the game and penalize, or 
allow play to go on and notify the Scorer of the 
penalty imposed at the end of the period. 

He must exclude a dangerous or vicious pony. 
He may stop a game in case of, or danger of, ac- 
cident. 



422 Polo (Equestrian) 

If a ball is broken, or otherwise rendered unservice- 
able, or if it strikes his pony, the Referee may stop the 
game and throw in another ball toward the middle 
of the field at the point where the ball was when he 
blew his whistle to notify the players to cease play. 

The Referee may impose a fine on a team, or any 
member of it, for being late, or for violation of rules 
or misconduct. 

TIMER. — This official is agreed upon by the Field 
Captains. 

He is subject to the direction of the Referee, who 
is his superior officer. 

The Timer rings a gong at the Referee's whistle as a 
signal for the game to begin. If four players make 
up each team, the Timer rings the gong at the end 
and beginning of each of 8 seven-and-a-half-minute 
periods. Between each two periods, he allows a 
three-minute rest, with one exception : between the 
fourth and fifth periods, a seven-minute rest is allowed. 
Three minutes before the seven are up, he should give 
a signal to saddle. 

If three players make up a team, the Timer rings a 
gong at the beginning of each 6 seven-and-a-half- 
minute periods and allows a three-minute rest. 

When two players constitute a team, he rings the 
gong at the beginning and end of each of 4 seven-and- 
a-half-minute periods, with a three-minute inter- 
mission between each. 

Time lost through suspension of the game for fouls 
or accidents is not counted in estimating periods. 
The Referee's whistle indicates when play is to stop, 
but time is estimated from when the event occurred. 



Ponies 423 

The Timekeeper's gong is the signal on which play 
is estimated to begin. 

THE SCORER is agreed upon by the two Captains. 
He keeps tally upon a large board, visible to the on- 
lookers. All decisions as to the score are made by the 
Referee. The Scorer will learn from the Referee, 
usually at the end of a period or game, any score for 
fouls. 

GOAL JUDGES. — These are appointed by the home 
Captain, but must be approved by the visiting Cap- 
tain. They are stationed each in line with a goal, to 
give information to the Referee as to goals made or 
play near the goal. 

FIELD CAPTAINS. — One player of each team is 
selected for Field Captain, usually, but not invariably, 
the Back. He assigns the positions to be taken by the 
players of his team, and directs their play. He alone 
may make protests to, or discuss questions with, the 
Referee. 

PONIES. — All American ponies must be registered 
with the Polo Association of America. Any member 
of the Committee of the Association may measure 
any pony and issue a certificate of registry or appoint 
a measurer to act for it. Any pony, five years old or 
over, may be measured and registered for life ; or 
under that age for one season. 

Whenever a pony is protested by a Field Captain, 
a certificate must be shown or the pony measured. 

These hardy, well-trained little ponies, none of 
which may be over 14-2 hands high, seem to enjoy 
and know the game, for even without the rider's 
guiding hand, they follow the white ball. 



424 Polo (Equestrian) 

OUTFIT. — Balls . — For outdoor games the ball 
is of wood, painted white. Size, 3I inches in diameter. 
Weight, not exceeding 5 ounces. Cost $2 per dozen 
or 20 dozen for $30. 

{For indoor games the hall is a laced leather ball of 
cowhide^ containing an inflated rubber bladder. Size 
5 inches in diameter^ $3-50 edch.) 

Mallets ( sticks ) . — These are made with a rattan 
handle and a wooden head, barrel-shaped, cigar- 
shaped, or bow-shaped. There are no official speci- 
fications for length or other dimensions. They cost 
from $2 to $3.50 each. 

Goal posts . — These are usually made of papier- 
mache or canvas, and cost $30 per set of 4. 

Dress . — Players are required, in tournament 
games, to wear club dress with its distinguishing 
colors. In all games, a safety helmet, or polo cap, 
strong enough to protect a player against injury from 
a stroke of the mallet, is required. 

HISTORY. — Before the Christian era, a game 
similar to polo was played by the Persians with seven 
men on a side. From there the game spread to India 
and there was taken up in modern times by English 
army officers. In 1869 officers of a regiment stationed 
at Aldershot read of the game, and with hockey sticks 
and a billiard ball introduced it into England. From 
there it has spread to all parts of the world. The game 
was introduced in America in 1876 by Mr. James 
Gorden Bennett, and in the same year the first 
American Polo Club, the Westchester Club, was 
formed. 



Glossary 425 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Official Handbook 

International Polo Guide. Edited by Basil Grant. Spalding's 
Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Pub- 



lishing Company.) 



The Game 



Encyclopedia of Sport. Edited by the Earl of Suffolk and 
Berkshire. (J. B. Lippincott Company, Publishers.) 

Modern Polo. By Captain E. D. Miller. Edited by M. H. 
Hayes. (London, Hurst and Blackett, Publishers.) 

Equestrian Polo. By H. L. Fitzpatrick. Spalding's Athletic 
Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Co.) 

GLOSSARY 

Back. The player who defends the goal. 
Crook. To hook an opponent's mallet with one's own. 
End line. The boundary or goal lines at end of field. 
Goal posts. Two ten-foot posts placed 8 yards apart at the 

center of each end line. 
Guards. The ten-inch boards that form the side lines. 
"Knock-in." Act of knocking the ball into the field of 

play after it has crossed the end line (gone out of bounds 

at the end) without making a goal. 
Mallet. The stick with which the ball is driven. 
Offside. Rider's right-hand side. 
Period. Time between intermissions, during which play is 

going on. 
Safety. A ball sent over one's own goal line. 
Side line. Boundary line on each side of the field ; marked 

by raised boards called guards. 
Stick. Mallet, with which the ball is played. 



SOCCER FOOTBALL 
(ENGLISH ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL) 



SOCCER FOOTBALL 
(ENGLISH ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL) 

GENERAL EXPLANATION. — Soccer football, 
as it is called in America, is the English Association 
Football, differing considerably from the other forms 
of English football (Rugby and Gaelic) and very 
markedly from the American Intercollegiate game. 
The principal difference between the latter two is in 
the rules governing the way in which the ball is played. 
Soccer football is entirely a game of kicking, it being a 
foul to handle or carry the ball as in the Intercollegiate 
game. This greatly simplifies the rules, and penalties 
for infringement thereof. It also prevents the dan- 
gerous mass play of the Intercollegiate game, and 
makes a more open game. 

In its essential form the game is almost identical 
with Field Hockey, although the ball, and the manner 
of playing it, are radically different. 

FIELD. — DIMENSIONS AND LINES. — The official 
field for Soccer football is from loo to 130 yards in 
length by 50 to 100 yards in width. For international 
matches the dimensions are from no to 120 yards in 
length and from 70 to 80 yards in width. The usual 
dimensions are 115 by 75 yards. The quadrangle 
must be plainly outHned. This is usually done with 
whitewash. It is illegal to mark the field with lines 
made by a V-shaped rut. A halfway fine is drawn 

429 



430 Soccer Football 

across the field separating it into two even fields. In 
the exact center of the field, so that it is bisected by 
this line, a circle is drawn, having a lo-yard radius 
(20 yards in diameter). The center of this circle 
should be the exact center of the field and should be 
plainly marked. The side lines are called the touch 
lines; the end Hues are called the goal lines. 

FLAGS should be placed at each corner of the field, 
preferably of Hght color. These should be on staffs, 
not less than 5 feet high. The tops of these staffs 
must not be pointed. These flags may not be removed 
during the game for any cause whatever. 

GOALS. — In the center of each goal line — that 
is, at each end of the field — are placed two goal 
posts, 8 yards apart. These are crossed with a bar 
8 feet from the ground ; the maximum width of posts 
and depth of bar is 5 inches. 

It is an aid to players to have the surface of these 
posts and bar that are next the field painted white. 

NET. — While not required by the rules, a goal net 
to catch the ball aids much in determining when a goal 
is made. 

GOAL AREA. — A goal area is marked in front of 
each goal by drawing Hues from the goal line, 6 yards 
into the field, and there connecting them by a line 
20 yards long, parallel with the goal line. The ends of 
this goal area start 6 yards outward from the goal 
posts (toward the side Unes). 

PENALTY AREA. — Inclosing the goal area is a larger 
quadrangle called the penalty area. The side Unes 
for this are started on the goal fine 18 yards from each 
goal post, and drawn forward into the field of play 





Goal Line 


Goal 


Corner Flag, 




7" 




Goal Post 
Sin. wide, 8 Ft. high 
Goal Area 




v; 


A 




crt *_ « nn v j_ 






• 
Penalty Area 
















? 


/ y*^' \ 




o 


J 


1 1^^ 




CO 


JC 


1 ! 




2 










t2 


\ -i2 / 




8 




















\ o / 








\ oj y 

I* — : 44Yds. 


*| 




r 
1 


Penalty Kickmark 








t^ 


' 








:i^ 




K- 20Yds.f-. H 








00 




. 








1 


r 


1 








1 


T 


CN4 

^6 Yds.-p -8 Yds. - -*|^ 


—18 Yds. > 


-j: 


-I 



Cross Bar 8 Ft. high 
DIAGRAM OF SOCCER FOOTBALL FIELD 
431 



432 Soccer Football 

for 1 8 yards. There they are connected with a 
transverse Hne parallel to the goal line. 

PENALTY KICK MARK. — Within each penalty area 
is a penalty kick mark, made opposite the center of 
the goal and 12 yards inward from the goal line. 

CORNER KICK AREA. — At each corner should be 
marked the quadrant of a circle having a radius of one 
yard, thus extending one yard on the goal Hne and 
side line from the point where these lines intersect. 
From within this area all corner kicks must be made. 

THE GAME. — TEAMS. — The game is played by 
two teams of 11 men each. They are the goal keeper, 
two full backs (right and left) , three half backs (right, 
left, and center), and, on the forward line, an inside 
and outside right, inside and outside left, and a center. 

The goal keeper never should range farther than 18 
yards from his goal ; the full backs seldom run farther 
up the field than the center line ; outside and inside 
right, center, and inside and outside left are the for- 
wards who are depended on to do the scoring. 

CHOICE OF SIDES. — The two teams toss a coin for 
choice of kick-off or goals ; that is, a choice of either 
putting the ball first in play, or of the end of the field 
in which they will play the first half of the game. 

The choice of goal is usually determined by un- 
favorable winds or sun, or both. A Captain will 
usually elect the goal from behind which the wind is 
blowing, or the sun is shining, or both. His players 
will then be kicking with the wind or not be compelled 
to look into the sun. The kick-oft^ being made toward 
the opponent's goal, to choose the kick-off may be an 
advantage to the kicking side in helping them toward 



start: Kick-Off 433 

that goal ; but on the other hand it usually places the 
kicking side at once on the defensive, as it generally 
gives the opponents possession of the ball. This fact 
of possession, however, is neutraUzed by the distance 
which the ball may be advanced toward the oppo- 
nents' goal with the first kick. 

START: KICK-OFF. — The ball is put in play at 
the Referee's whistle by a place kick from the exact 
center of the field of play, by the side determined by 
the toss, the kick being in the direction of the oppo- 
nents' goal line. Unless the ball moves more than its 
own circumference (27 inches), it is not in play and 
must be kicked off again. The kicker must be a 
member of one of the teams (except in charity 
matches) and he may not play the ball again until it 
has been played by another player of his own or the 
opposite side. For this first kick-off, and also the 
kick-off at the beginning of the second half, the oppo- 
nents may not approach within 10 yards of the ball 
until it is kicked off. No player of either side may 
pass the center line toward the opponents' goal until 
the ball is kicked off. It is not the Referee's whistle, 
but the kick, that releases the other players. After 
the kick-off the ball may be kicked in any direction. 
> There are several other occasions during a game 
when the ball has to be put in play. 

After a goal is scored, the ball is put in play by a 
kick-off from the center of the field by a player of the 
losing side. 

The ball is dead after going over the goal line outside 
the goal and is put in play thereafter by a goal kick ; 
i.e., a free kick toward the opposite goal, by a player 

2F 



434 Soccer Football 

defending the goal line that was crossed, made from 
within that half of the goal area nearest the point 
where the ball left the field of play. 

At the beginning of the second half of the game, the 
ball is put in play by a kick-off from the center of the 
field by the opposite team to that which originally 
started the game. 

ADVANCING THE BALL. — The ball is advanced 
during the game entirely by kicking. It is a foul for 
any player, except the goal keeper, to use his hands 
on the ball. 

Within his own penalty area, the goal keeper may 
use his hands on the ball, but he may not carry it 
more than two steps or dribble it. 

MAKING A GOAL. — A goal is made by a team when 
a kicked ball passes completely over the goal Kne, 
between the goal posts, and under the bar of the oppo- 
nents' goal. The ball may not be thrown, knocked 
on (batted), nor carried by a player of either side. 

Should the cross bar of the goal be displaced, the 
Referee may award the goal if he thinks the ball would 
have passed under the bar if not displaced. 

The ball is considered to have made a goal if it 
hits a goal keeper and then crosses under the bar. 

A goal is not made, and the ball is still in play, if the 
ball does not go entirely over the goal line, or if it hits 
a goal post, cross bar, or corner flagstaff and rebounds 
into the field of play. 

The ball is out of play whenever it crosses the goal 
line whether in the air or on the ground. 

A goal may be scored if made from a free kick 
awarded to a side when its opponents commit a foul 



The Game 435 

in their manner of play ; that is, when they trip, kick, 
or jump at a player, use hands or arms on either a 
player or the ball (except that the goal keeper may 
use his hands within the goal area), or charge a player 
from behind. 

A goal may not be made from either a throw-in, 
kick-off, corner kick, goal kick, or any other penalty 
kick, except for illegal play, as just described. 

GOAL KICK. — After the ball passes -the goal line, 
propelled by the attacking team, it is put in play by 
what is called a goal kick ; that is, it is kicked off from 
within that half of the goal area nearest the point 
where the ball left the field of play, by any player of 
the defending side, — that is, of the team whose goal 
has been crossed. 

During a goal kick no opponent may come within 
10 yards of the ball until it is kicked off. The goal 
kick is thus a free kick. 

The ball is in play as soon as kicked. 

CORNER KICK. — If a team sends the ball across 
its own goal line, the ball is put in play by what is 
called a corner kick ; that is, the ball is kicked farther 
into the field of play from within one yard of the corner 
flag staff nearest where it crossed the goal. The flag- 
staff may not be removed. This kick may be made 
by any player of the attacking side. 

No opponents may be within 10 yards of the ball 
until it is kicked. The corner kick is thus a free 
kick. 

The ball is in play as soon as kicked. 

TIME. — The duration of the regular game is 90 
minutes unless otherwise mutually agreed upon. 



436 Soccer Football 

This time is divided into two equal halves, with a 
resting interval between of 5 minutes. By consent 
of the Referee, on request of both Captains, this 
intermission between halves may be lengthened, or 
the halves shortened. 

For players of elementary school age (rules of New 
York Public Schools Athletic League) the game is 
played in 20-minute halves with an intermission of 
10 minutes ; for high school players, the game is in 
30-minute halves with a lo-minute intermission. 

In estimating time, there should be taken out (not 
counted) time wasted or lost, as through accident. 
The Referee should inform the Captains of such time 
allowance as it occurs. 

The sides change ends at the beginning of the second 
half, but at no other time. 

At the beginning of the second half the kick-off 
is made by the team opposed to the one that originally 
started the game. 

SCORE. — There is only one way of scoring ; that 
is, by kicking a goal, which counts one point. The 
ball must pass under the cross bar and between the 
uprights of the opponents' goal. The team having 
the greater number of points or goals at the end of 
two thirty-minute halves — plus a ten-minute inter- 
mission between halves — is awarded the match. 
(See time Hmits for junior players.) 

In case of a tie, the Captains usually decide whether 
another game is to be played or whether an extra 
period shall decide the match. 

At the end of the first half, the teams change goals ; 
that is, the defenders of one goal trot to the other end 



Methods of Playing the Ball 437 

of the field at the beginning of the second half and 
defend the goal that they had attacked during the 
first half. 

METHODS OF PLAYING THE BALL. — In 

Soccer the ball is played entirely by kicking. No 
catching, handling, or carrying of the ball is allowable, 
except by the goal keeper within the penalty area. 

An exception is the throw-in to put the ball again 
in play after in touch (i.e., after it has gone out of 
bounds over the side lines). 

The goal keeper may use his hands on the ball 
within his own penalty area, but not outside of that. 
Within the area he may not carry the ball, nor bounce 
it on the hands, for more than two steps. 

The ball is put in play under different conditions 
throughout the game, in several different ways; 
namely, by a place kick, a throw-in, or a kick after 
being dropped by the Referee. 

PLACE KICK. — This is a kick made on a signal 
from the Referee's whistle, after the ball has been 
placed on the ground on a given spot. The ball is 
not held by a team-mate, as for the place kick of the 
Rugby or Intercollegiate game. 

Free kicks, awarded for some infringement of rules, 
or for putting the ball in play after a goal, are prac- 
tically place kicks also, though made from other 
parts of the field. 

THROW IN. — This is used to return the ball to 
play after it has gone over the side lines. The throw- 
in is made by any player of the opposite side to that 
which played the ball out. He must do this by throw- 
ing the ball in from the point on the touch line where it 



438 Soccer Football 

left the field of play, as indicated by the Linesman. 
For the throw-in a player must stand on the touch 
line facing the field of play with any part of both feet 
on the line, and throw the ball in over his own head 
with both hands, aiming it in any direction that he 
chooses. These rules are intended to insure an equal 
impetus from both hands. Any other kind of throw 
is a foul. 

After a throw-in the ball is in play as soon as thrown. 
A goal may not be scored from a throw-in. 

The thrower may not again play the ball until 
another player of either side has played it. 

For any breach of rules in a throw-in, the opponents 
may be awarded a free kick by the Referee. 

BALL DROPPED BY REFEREE. — After any tempo- 
rary suspension of play , the Referee throws the ball 
up at the point where it was when play was suspended ; 
the ball is in play when it touches the ground. No 
player of either side may play the ball when the 
Referee is thus putting it in play until it has touched 
the ground. 

Penalty. — For playing the ball before it has touched the 
ground after the Referee has thrown it up, following a tempo- 
rary suspension of play, the offended side is awarded a free kick 
from the point where the offense occurred. 

The ball is in play if it touches the Referee or a 
Linesman when in the field of play; also when it 
rebounds into the field of play from a goal post, cross 
bar, or corner flag-staff. 

METHODS AND RULES FOR PLAYERS, — 
The hands may not be used on any opponent by any 
player. No tripping, kicking, pushing with the knee, 



Methods and Rules for Players 439 

or jumping at a player is permissible, nor may an 
opponent be held or pushed with the hands. To 
charge a player from behind is unlawful unless he is 
intentionally impeding an opponent. Charging under 
other circumstances is permissible if not of a char- 
acter to be classed as rough play. 

The goal keeper may not be charged within the 
goal area, unless he is holding the ball or obstructing 
an opponent. He may, however, be charged outside 
the goal area. 

Penalty . — For infringement of the rules governing 
the method of play between players, the penalty 
varies according to whether the foul occurred within 
or without the penalty area, the purpose of this dif- 
ference being especially to safeguard an attacking 
side from unjust play when near the opponents' goal. 
At such times the excitement of a game is at its 
highest point, and fouls are especially liable to 
occur. 

Should a foul in the methods between players occur 
outside the penalty area, or by the attacking side 
within the penalty area, the opponents are awarded 
a free kick from the place where the foul occurred. 

Any infringement of the rules governing the methods 
of play between players (kicking, tripping, jumping, 
use of hands, charging, etc.) by the defending side 
within the penalty area, is penalized with a special 
severity. Under such circumstances the opponents 
are awarded a penalty kick ; that is, a free kick from 
the penalty kick mark. This mark is but twelve 
yards from the opponents' goal, and a goal may be 



440 Soccer Football 

scored from it, even should the ball hit the goal keeper 
before passing between the posts. 

The position of all players of both sides at the 
moment of such a kick must be outside the penalty 
area, except for the kicker and the opponents' goal 
keeper. This goal keeper must be within the goal area. 

The ball must be kicked forward on such a kick. 

The ball is in play as soon as kicked and any player 
of either team may then press forward; but the 
kicker may not again play the ball until some other 
player has played it. 

The time of play may be extended to allow such a 
penalty kick if that be necessary. 

For any infringement of the rules governing the 
players of the attacking side during such a penalty 
kick, a free kick may be awarded to the opposite 
team. The enforcement of these penalties is at the 
discretion of the Referee, if he thinks it would give 
an advantage to the offending side to enforce them. 

OFFSIDE AND ONSIDE PLAY. — The rules governing 
the conditions under which a player may or may not 
play the ball are designed to equalize the competition 
by not giving a team too great a chance to advance 
the ball through getting between it and the opponents' 
goal unless such goal be guarded by at least three 
players who are in advance of the attacking player. 
When the ball is put in play in any way (except 
from a corner kick, or a goal kick after the goal has 
been crossed) , any player of the side starting the ball, 
who is, at the moment of starting it, between the 
opponents' goal line and the ball, is out of play (off- 
side) unless at that same moment three of the de- 



Offside and Onside Play 441 

fending team are between the attacking player and 
their own goal line. This applies both to a kick and a 
throw-in made by the player's own side in the oppo- 
nents' half of the field, but not in his own half. It does 
not apply when one of the opponents plays the ball 
or throws it in after it has been in touch (over the side 
lines), as the object of such an opponent is not to 
advance the ball to his own goal, and any rules 
designed to equalize competition for that goal are 
obviously not needed. 

A player who is out of play (offside), as above de- 
scribed, may not touch the ball himself, nor interfere 
with any opponent, nor with the play, until the ball 
has been played by another player of his own or the 
defending side. 

The following explanations about offside play are 
quoted from the official rules, edited by Mr. Thomas 
W. CahiU. 

" A player who is in his own half of the field of play at the 
moment the ball is last played cannot be offside. The point 
to notice is not where a player is when he plays the ball, but 
where he is at the moment it is played by a player of the same 
side. In the rush of a game a Referee is apt to lose sight of 
the positions of the field at every kick, yet he ought to educate 
himself to intuitively fix each change on his mind. If a player 
is in line with or behind the ball when it is played, he cannot 
possibly be offside ; but if he is in front of it, he is liable to be 
so. Though a player cannot be offside when an opponent last 
plays the ball, or when a corner kick, or a goal kick is taken, 
this protection ceases the moment a second player plays the 
ball, so that a player not offside when a comer kick is taken, 
may, without having moved, be offside as soon as the ball has 
been played. A player following up another of his own side 
who has the ball cannot be offside. Players may be offside 



44^ Soccer Football 

when a free kick or penalty kick is taken, and when the ball is 
thrown in from touch. An opponent playing the ball puts a 
player onside at once, but while standing offside a player must 
not interfere in any way with an opponent or with the play. 
If a player is standing offside, he is offside until the ball is next 
played, even though sufficient opponents fall back to make three 
between him and their goal line. 

" The International Board have made it plain that a player 
who is in an offside position is bound to keep out of the way 
of the play, and that he is liable to be penalized if in any 
manner his presence causes any interference with the play. 

" When the ball is kicked off from either goal no player is 
offside. 

^^ Instructions to Players. — ^ A player who is in his own half of 
the field of play at the moment the ball is last played cannot be 
offside. 

^' A player once offside cannot put himself onside. This can 
only be done for him in three ways: (i) If an opponent next 
plays the ball ; (2) if he is behind the ball when it is next played 
by one of his own side; (3) if he has three opponents between 
him and their goal line when the ball is played by one of his own 
side further from his opponents' goal than himself. 

^' The ball hitting the goal post or bar and rebounding does not 
put a player onside who was ' offside ' when the ball was last played. 

" Take care that when the ball is played by one of your own 
side you have three opponents between you and their goal line 
or that you are in a line with or behind the ball. Can anything 
be simpler ? If your opponent plays the ball, or the ball touches 
him in any way, you are onside no matter where you stand, but 
when standing offside you have no right to interfere with an op- 
ponent nor to station yourself so near the goal keeper, or any 
other opponent, as to hamper his movements, or obstruct his 
sight of the ball.'' 

Penalty . — Any infringement of the rules that place a 
player offside or onside is penalized by awarding to the opposite 
side a free kick from the place where the infringement occurred. 
A goal may not be scored directly from this free kick. 



Summary of Fouls and Penalties 443 



SUMMARY OF FOULS AND PENALTIES 



Fouls 



Penalties 



(a) Wrong method of play- 
ing the ball (as handling or 
carrying) . 

(b) Wrong methods between 
players (as tackling, tripping, 
etc.). 



For fouls (a) or (b). 

By either team, outside 
penalty area, free kick 
awarded to opponents from 
spot where breach occurred. 

By attacking side, within 
penalty area, same as above. 

By defending side in 
penalty area, opponents 
awarded a penalty kick from 
penalty kick mark. 



(c) Offside play. 



(d) Infringement of rules 
when ball is put in play, 
whether by Referee's drop- 
ping it, or by place kick, 
free kick (including goal kick, 
kick, penalty kick), or throw- 
in. 

(e) Charging goal keeper in 
penalty area. (He may be 
charged when holding ball or 
obstructing opponent or when 
outside goal area.) 

Changing goal keeper with- 
out notifying Referee. 

(/) Players sent from field 
for ungentlemanly behavior. 



Free kick for opponents 
at spot where offense oc- 
curred. 



444 Soccer Football 

OFFICIALS. — For Soccer or Association football, 
three officials only are prescribed, — one Referee 
and two Linesmen. 

REFEREE. — The Referee is the responsible head 
official for the game. It is his duty, before the game 
begins, to see that the ground is properly marked, 
goal and ball according to specifications, and players 
not wearing projecting metal or hard gutta percha 
parts on shoes or shin guards. 

To note particularly who is the goal keeper, that he 
may know if a change in goal keepers be made in the 
course of the game without notifying the Referee 
according to rules. 

To signal with a whistle for play to start, at the 
opening of the game, or after any stoppage; and 
similarly to stop play at the close of halves, or for 
fouls, goals, or accidents. He may not continue the 
game after the exact time limit of halves, except for 
the finish of a penalty kick. 

To put the ball in play, by dropping it for a kick 
at the spot where it was when play ceased, after all 
temporary stoppages of play, except those from which 
it is put in play by prescribed kicks, as a goal kick, cor- 
ner kick, or free kick. When the Referee so drops 
the ball, no player may play on it until it touches the 
ground. Should a player infringe this rule, a free 
kick is awarded the opponents from the spot where 
the breach occurred. 

To act as Timekeeper and Scorer, making allowance, 
in estimating halves, for any time wasted (as in re- 
turning to play after a goal) , or time lost, from accident 
or other cause. The Referee should inform the two 



Officials 445 

Captains whenever he makes any such time allowance. 
He may terminate a game for exceptional reasons, 
such as darkness, storm, or interference by spectators. 

To blow his whistle for play to stop and start. It is 
a foul for any player to start his play before the whistle, 
or, in the case of putting the ball in play, before the ball 
is kicked, or (if dropped) before it has touched the 
ground. 

To enforce all laws of the game, decide all disputed 
points, and award all penalties. 

He may award a free kick to the offended side in 
case of any dangerous play not specified in the rules. 

He should be familiar with all fouls. 

The Linesmen should inform the Referee of fouls 
observed by them, and in many cases the Referee will 
depend on their knowledge of the facts, though his own 
decisions are final. 

He may exclude any player from the game for un- 
gentlemanly behavior, having first cautioned him, 
or, in case of violent misbehavior, without such 
caution. 

The authority of the Referee is final in all matters of 
fact connected with the game, and applies during a 
game or during any temporary suspension of it, or 
when the ball is out of play. 

The Referee should move up and down the field 
with the game, trying always to look at the ball 
from the sides when it is liable to go over the goal line. 

LINESMEN. — The two Linesmen serve chiefly as 
assistants to the Referee. 

They should stand beyond the touch lines, one on 
each side, as much as possible outside the field of 



446 Soccer Football 

play, moving up and down the field as the position 
of the ball changes. 

A Linesman should carry a light-colored flag with 
which to signal to the Referee when fouls are observed, 
or the ball is in touch. 

When the ball goes over the side lines, the Linesman 
should indicate with his flag to the Referee the exact 
spot where it crossed the line, and also indicate which 
player threw it out. 

The Linesmen should help determine which team 
is entitled to a corner kick, a goal kick, or a throw-in. 

In short, the Linesmen should be particularly watch- 
ful of the ball, and the players and rules concerning 
it, when it crosses either the side lines or the goal line. 

The Linesmen's decisions are subject to the Ref- 
eree's final judgment, and the. latter may exclude 
Linesmen from the field in case of misbehavior. 

OUTFIT. — BALL. — Soccer football is played with 
a round, laced ball. The official dimensions call for 
a ball not less than 27 inches nor more than 28 inches 
in circumference. For international matches the 
weight of the ball at the opening of a game must be not 
less than 13 ounces nor more than 15 ounces. 

This is called the Association football. A good 
ball costs $5. 

GOAL NET. — Heavy, tarred nets, with all fixtures, 
cost $18 a pair. 

FLAGS and staffs may be had for fifty cents each. 

DRESS. — This is similar to that worn in intercol- 
legiate football. 

No . projecting nails, buckles, or other hard sub- 
stance is allowable on shoes or shin guards. 



Glossary 447 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Official College Soccer Football Guide. Edited by G. W. Or ton. 
Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports 
Publishing Company.) Published under the auspices 
of the National Collegiate Athletic Association. 

Official Association Soccer Football Guide. Spalding's Athletic 
Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Com- 
pany.) 

How to Play Soccer. By S. Bloomer, J. T. Robertson, J. Kir- 
wan, J. Ashcroft, W. Bull, A. Common, A. McCombie, 
J. Cameron and ''McW." Edited by J. A. McWeeney. 
Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports 
PubHshing Company.) 

Football, How to Flay the Game; Rugby and Association Games 
Described. By William H. Bannard. 

Soccer Football in Three Grades of Difficulty; as Played in the 
Public Schools of Philadelphia. (Pamphlet.) (Milwau- 
kee, Mind and Body.) 

GLOSSARY 

See Glossary for Intercollegiate Football, 



SQUASH TENNIS 



SQUASH TENNIS 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Squash is a game 
that strongly resembles the English game of rackets. 
It combines elements of both handball and lawn 
tennis, more nearly resembling the former. 

It is pla3^ed in an inctosed room, and consists in 
hitting a small ball with a racket so that it will re- 
bound against one or more of the five playing surfaces, 
— front, back, and side walls, or floor. 

Ofiicial matches are played by two players, though 
doubles (four-hand games) are sometimes played. 

The ball is put in play by a serve, as in the games 
previously mentioned. The server is the only one to 
score, — an ace, or point, being given him on each 
failure of the opponent. He continues to serve until 
he makes two faults (fails in his service, or infringes 
a rule) when the serve and opportunity to score pass 
to the opponent. The server is called hand-in; the 
receiver, or opponent, hand-out. 

Peculiarities of the game are (i) that players face 
the side walls, instead of the front wall, as in hand- 
ball ; (2) that when the score is even, at one or two 
points below the maximum, instead of deciding the 
game by the next one or two strokes, the hand-out 
'^ sets the game '' ; that is, he states whether it shall 
be determined by the player first scoring three or five 

451 



452 Squash Tennis 

additional points ; and (3) the ball, racket, and court 
measurements and construction differ from those used 
in other games. 

The following directions are based on the official 
rules of the National Squash Tennis Association. 

THE COURT, IN GENERAL, is an inclosed room 
having smooth playing surfaces on the front, back, and 
side walls, and the floor. Unlike the stone or concrete 
courts used for rackets, hard wood (3 inches thick 
on front, back, and floor, and 2 inches thick on sides) 
is recommended for the interior of a squash court. 
This is finished (according to officially approved 
directions) in a dull varnish (not wax) of mahogany 
red on all playing surfaces, with white for the ceiling 
and walls above. Entrance is through a door made 
flush with the back or side walk A gallery for specta- 
tors, protected by heavy glass or net, may be pro- 
vided at the back or sides, above the playing surfaces. 
Light may be introduced in the roof through thick 
glass, or electric lights may be used, in which the 
direct light is shielded from the eyes of the players. 
Good ventilation (outside air) and no heat, are im- 
portant considerations. Largely because of better 
light and ventilation, the roof or upper floors are 
recommended for the location of squash courts in 
city homes. 

DETAIL MEASUREMENTS. — The court should meas- 
ure 17 feet wide by 32^ feet long. The playing sur- 
faces of the walls are, front wall, 14 -feet high; back 
wall at least 9 feet high, and side walls 12 feet. (To 
allow for a gallery it is permissible to make the play- 



The Court 453 

ing surface of the side walls only 9 feet high for a 
distance of 10 feet from the back wall.) 

On the front wall are a service line, above which a 
served ball must strike, and, lower down, a telltale 
(metal strip) above which a returned ball must strike. 
On the back wall is a line below which a ball must 
strike, and service and court lines are on the floor. 

All lines must be painted in black and be one inch 
wide. 

Telltale . — This is a sheet metal strip, placed 
across the front wall from side to side, the upper 
edge 2 feet from the floor. The metal may extend 
entirely to the floor, or it mxay be 15 inches wide, 
leaving below a strip of the wooden wall, 9 inches 
wide, against which rolling or low balls may rebound 
to the players, and so assist in their own recovery. 
The object of the metal strip is to indicate by sound 
a returned ball that hits the wall below the prescribed 
height of 2 feet, the rapidity of the game making such 
an indication highly desirable. The metal strip should 
not be in contact with the wooden sheathing of the 
wall, as it might then resound from vibration when 
not directly hit ; it should be supported independently 
and directly from the inner wall itself. The tell- 
tale should be painted black Uke the lines. 

Wall service Une . — On the front wall, 6| feet above 
the floor, or 4I feet above the upper edge of the tell- 
tale, and parallel with it, a one-inch line is drawn in 
black across the front wall. This is the service line, 
above which a served ball must strike for a good 
service. 

Back wall line. — On the back wall, 4 J feet from the 



454 Squash Tennis 

floor, a black line is drawn, below which a ball must 
strike in any effort to reach the front wall on a re- 
bound from the back wall. 

Center line. — From the front to the back wall a 
line is drawn on the floor which divides the two service 
courts. 

Floor service line. — Another line is drawn across 
the floor from side to side, lo feet from the back wall, 
and parallel with it, from behind which a served ball 
must be delivered. The rear inclosures are called 
service boxes, right and left respectively, as one faces 
the front wall. The two forward inclosures are called 
the right and left service courts. 

THE GAME is played by two players. It is possi- 
ble to play doubles as in handball, but official matches 
are singles (two players). 

CHOICE OF SERVE. — This is determined by a spin 
of the racket before the game opens. While one player 
spins the racket, the opponent calls '' Rough '' or 
^^ Smooth." If the side of the racket so named 
falls uppermost, the one calling it may choose either 
to serve or receive on the first play. 

SERVICE : HAND-IN. — The ball is put in play by a 
serve similar to that used for lawn tennis ; it is tossed 
or released from one hand and batted or hit with the 
racket held in the other. 

Each player in serving must serve first from the 
right-hand box, next from the left-hand box, and there- 
after alternately from the two. 

He must stand entirely back of the ten-foot service 
line, must stand on both feet while serving, and 
neither foot must touch any line. 



Service 455 

The served ball must hit the front wall (and not 
touch anything else first) above the service Hne, and 
rebound in the service court diagonally opposite to the 
box from which it was served. That is, if served from 
the right-hand box, the ball, after hitting the front wall 
above the service line, must bound in the left service 
court. A ball hitting a line is out of a given court, 
not in it. 

The receiver, or hand-out, then returns the ball 
after its first bound off the floor, the server returns 
this ball, and so on, alternately, until one or the other 
fails to return the ball. Should this failure be on the 
part of the server, he becomes hand-out and nothing 
is scored. Should the hand-out fail to legally re- 
turn the ball, the hand-in scores an ace (point) and 
serves again. 

Failure to correctly serve is called a fault. The 
following are faults in service : 

(i) Ball hitting the front wall below the wall 
service line. 

(2) Ball hitting a floor line on the first bound. 

(3) Ball bounding in wrong service court instead 
of in that diagonally opposite to the service box 
used. 

(4) Ball hitting anything before it strikes the front 
wall (unless the ball hit a player. In that case the 
presiding ofl&cial will decide whether or not it is a let 
— ix., a fault that does not count). 

(5) Server serving from wrong box, or standing on 
one foot, or with either foot touching a line. 

A server loses his serve (becomes hand-out) on a 
second fault (also on failure to return the ball) . The 



456 Squash Tennis 

opponent then serves from the right-hand box and 
begins to score. 

A service fault (incorrect serve) must not be played 

— i.e., returned by the opponent. 

RETURNING THE BALL, OR HAND-OUT. — The 
player who is hand-out may stand in any part of the 
court, though he will naturally be so placed as to 
return the ball readily as it bounds in the service court 
diagonally opposite the server. 

He must hit the ball after it bounds once. A served 
ball may not be volleyed (hit on the fly before it 
bounds), and must be hit before a second bound. 

The receiver may strike the ball directly to the front 
wall, or so it will first strike the back or side walls and 
then rebound to the front wall ; but however played, 
it must eventually strike the front wall above the 
telltale. The server, or hand-in, tries similarly ta 
return this ball. The hand-out then tries to return 
it a second time, and so on until one or the other 
fails. 

A faulty serve (service fault) must not be returned 
or played. 

GENERAL RULES AND POINTS OF PLAY. 

— PLAYING THE BALL. — Players should face a side 
wall, not the front wall. 

The ball must be hit before a second bound on the 
floor. 

Volleying (hitting a ball on the fly before it bounds 
on the floor) is permissible for any but a served ball. 
The latter must bound once before it is played. 

A served ball must hit the front wall above the 
service line. 



Score 457 

A returned ball must hit the front wall above the 
telltale. 

A ball played to the back wall to bound from there 
to the front wall must hit the back wall below the 
4i-foot line. 

A fly ball (from the racket) hitting on or above the 
boundary hnes on front, back, or side walls, is dead. 
A bounding ball may hit on or above such lines and 
be fair. 

A player may hit the ball only once in one stroke, 
and may not play it again until the adversary has 
played it. 

LET. — Failure to properly serve or return the ball 
does not count (i.e., is considered a let) if a player be 
interfered with by his opponent, or if he be hit by his 
opponent's ball on its way to the front wall. In other 
words, personal interference of any kind is not a feature 
of the game and does not count, unless a player is 
hit by a ball after it has struck the front wall. That is 
inexcusable interference, whether intentional or not, 
and for it a player loses the point (the opponent scores 
an ace, if serving) . 

To prevent an opponent's seeing the ball, is not 
considered a let, but to interfere with his stroke is a let. 

A stroke faihng because the ball breaks is a let. 

A let must be claimed before making a stroke. 

The Referee only may decide a let. 

SCORE. — The server, or hand-in, is the only 
player to score. The opportunity to serve passes 
from one player to another with the service. 

The server scores one point (called an ace) whenever 
the hand-out fails legitimately to return the ball. 



458 Squash Tennis 

The player first scoring 15 aces wins the game, except 
where a tie occurs at a score of 13 or 14 (called 13 all, 
or 14 all). 

When the score is 13 all, the out hand sets the game 
at 3 or 5. That is, he decides whether the game shall 
be won by the player who first makes 3 additional 
points, or 5 additional points. 

When the score is 14 all, the hand-out must set the 
game at 3 (the player wins who first makes 3 addi- 
tional points). 

OFFICIALS. — A Referee decides the score, and 
all lets or other points of play. His decision is 
final. 

OUTFIT. — BALLS are in size between handballs 
and lawn tennis balls, being somewhat smaller than the 
latter. They are made of rubber, with an overspun 
or knitted covering. Cost, $6 per dozen. 

At any time between plays either player may call 
for a new ball. 

RACKETS. — These resemble lawn tennis rackets, 
being made of a wooden frame and handle, the former 
strung with gut. They are smaller than lawn tennis 
rackets, and sometimes different in shape. Cost, 
$3.50 to $5 each. 

DRESS. — A low shoe of buck or other soft leather, 
vnth a rubber sole, is usually worn. Loose tennis 
dress constitutes the rest of the costume. 

HISTORY. — Squash tennis is a close relative of 
the English game of rackets, which claims a very 
ancient lineage in England and France. In its 
present official form the game is claimed to be largely 
an American development. Its popularity among 



Bibliography 459 

amateurs is rapidly increasing, so that squash courts 
are found in most of the larger clubs and universities 
and on many private estates. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Official Handbook 

Official Handbook. National Squash Tennis Association. 
Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, Americaii oports 
Publishing Company.) 

The Game 

The Game of Squash. By E. H. Miles. (New York, J. F. 

Taylor, 1901.) 
Racquets, Tennis, Squash. By E. H. Miles. (New York, 

D. Appleton and Co., 1903.) 
The Encyclopedia of Sport. Edited by the Earl of Suffolk 

and Berkshire. (Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott Company, 

London, Heinemann.) 
Court Tennis, with Notes on Racquets and Squash Racquets. 

By Frank C. Tompkins. (New York, Lippincott, 1909.) 
Court Games. Edited by Frederick R. Toombs. Spalding's 

Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Pub- 
lishing Company.) 

GLOSSARY 

See Handball, 



VOLLEY BALL 




VOLLEY BALL: DIAGRAM SHOWING POSITION AND ROTATION OF 
PLAYERS FOR TEAMS OF SIX AND ELEVEN. COMPETING TEAMS 
SHOULD HAVE AN EQUAL NUMBER OF PLAYERS 



462 



VOLLEY BALL! 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — This is one of the 
most popular team games for the gymnasium and is 
also played out of doors. 

It is played by two teams of players, who stand one 
on each side of a high net. 

The object of the game for each team is to keep a 
large ball in lively play over the net toward its oppo- 
nents' court, as each team scores only on its oppo- 
nents' failures to return the ball or to keep it in the 
air ; it must not touch the floor. The ball is played 
entirely by batting with the open hand (one or both) 
and may not be hit with the fist, caught, held, or 
dribbled. The necessity for keeping the ball from the 
floor leads to a very rapid game, with much agility 
and skill on the part of the players. 

The ball is put in play by being served by the party 
which is to score. The service of the ball, and with 
it the privilege of scoring, pass to the opponents 
according to the rules described hereinafter. 

COURT. — BOUNDARY LINES. — The court for 
volley ball must be outlined by distinct lines at least 
two inches wide. The maximum dimensions are 60 
feet long by 30 feet wide. A smaller court is permis- 

1 For rules for a less formal game of Volley Ball, for large num- 
bers, see Bancroft's " Games for the Playground, Home, School and 
Gymnasium." 

463 



464 Volley Ball 

sible, and for young players or limited conditions may 
be desirable. 

Both the side and end lines must be at least 3 feet 
from walls, fences, pillars, or other obstructions. 

NET. — Across the center, from side line to side 
line, is stretched a tennis net, or a similar net at least 
3 feet wide. This must be stretched taut by all four 
corners. The upper edge of the net must be 7I feet 
from the floor, and must not sag, but be level, or of 
even height throughout. Special fixtures for holding 
the net are obtainable. 

TEAMS. — Match games played under official rules 
have 6 players on a team. Each team elects a 
Captain. 

(The game may be played with an indefinite number of 
players and is usually so played or wherever large numbers 
have to be accommodated.) 

PLACES : ROTATION. — The six players on a team 
are placed, at the opening of the game and for each 
subsequent serve, in general as shown on the accom- 
panying diagram, though they may move to any part 
of their own court; they rotate toward the left each 
time their team is retired from serving. This retire- 
ment and rotation occur on the Referee's call of " Side 
out ! " which is given when a serving team fails to re- 
turn the opponent's ball, or when the serving team 
plays the ball illegally. By this rotation, each player 
in turn serves for his side. 

A Hst of the players of each team, written in the 
order in which they will serve, must be given by the 
Captain of each team before the game, to the Lines- 



Service 465 

men, who check the sendng order throughout the 
game. 

SUBSTITUTES are allowed to take the place of dis- 
abled or disqualified players. The original player may 
not again enter the game. A substitute may enter 
the game only when the ball is dead and play is sus- 
pended, the Referee's whistle having so signaled. 

PLAYERS ON TIME. — Each team must be on the 
floor ready to play within one minute after the Referee's 
call of '"Play!" for a game to begin. For delay 
beyond this time the deHnquent team forfeits the 
game, the opponents scoring i to o. 

THE GAME. — choice of courts or service. 
Before the game opens the Captains toss a coin to 
decide which team shall have the first service, and 
which court each team shall occupy. The winners of 
the toss may choose either service or court, but not 
both. 

SERVICE. — The ball is served, or put in play at 
the opening of the game on the Referee's call of 
'' Play! '' by the first player in the team's " serving 
order." It is similarly put in play after every point 
scored, or any violation of rules, or when, for any other 
reason, the ball is dead — all of which events are 
signaled by the Referee's whistle. 

The server must stand either entirely behind the 
end Hne of his own court, or with one or both feet on 
the end Hne. He may stand anywhere on this line 
that he chooses ; that is, in the center or on either side 
of the center. 

The ball is served by the server's tossing it and then 
batting it with the open hand toward any part of the 

2H 



466 Volley Ball 

opponent's court. The ball may be batted with one 
or both handSj but may not be struck with the closed 
fist. 

It is not necessary that the ball should go over the 
net from the server's hands, to be a successful serve, as 
any number of players on a team may bat the ball 
before it goes over. 

A served ball hitting the net, or any other object, 
or going under the net or out of bounds, is a failure ; 
so is a served ball that does not go over the net batted 
legally by either the server or some other player on 
the same team. For such failure the Referee calls' 
'' Side out ! " and the serve passes to the opposing 
team. 

The ball is served by the same server until he or his 
team fails (i) to properly serve the ball; (2) to return 
the opponent's ball ; or (3) to observe all rules for legal 
play. When such failure occurs, the Referee blows 
his whistle and calls ^^ Side out ! " when the service 
is taken over by the opponents. 

The retiring team immediately rotates positions one 
place toward the left and prepares to receive the ball. 
The next time the serve comes to them, the second 
player in the serving order acts as server, and so on, 
after each subsequent '' side out," until all have served, 
when the order begins over again. 

RETURNING THE BALL. — The object of the re- 
ceiving team is to return the ball over the net with- 
out allowing it to touch the floor on their side of the 
net. The opponents score on such failure. 

The object of the receiving team is to return the 
ball over the net without allowing it to touch the 



Rules 467 

floor on their side of the net. The opponents score 
on such failures. 

RULES. — The ball is played entirely by batting 
with the open hand (one or both), but never with the 
fist. 

The ball must be kept in the air, as it counts as a 
failure to return, if it touches the floor, except if it 
touches a boundary line . The latter is a good ball and 
still in play. 

Catching or holding the ball is not allowed. 

Dribbling is not allowed. For one player to touch 
the ball twice in succession in any manner is dribbling. 

To touch the ball in any manner while it is in play 
(not dead) is considered playing it. 

Any number of players on a team may hit the ball 
before it goes over the net, but may not unnecessarily 
delay the game by so doing. 

Any but a served ball may be recovered from the 
net. 

A served ball touching the net is dead, even though 
it go over. A returned ball touching the net (from 
either team) is good and in play if it goes over or is 
recovered by another player than the one who hit it 
into the net. 

The ball is dead when it hits any object outside the 
court, touches the floor inside or outside the court 
(but not if it touches the boundary Hues), or when 
play is suspended by the Referee's whistle. 

A player may not touch the net , nor reach over it to 
strike the ball. 

A player may not be supported by any other player 
or object while striking the ball. 



468 Volley Ball 

Players must remain in their own court , and may 
not go into the opponents' court. 

No players but the Captains may address officials. 

Ungentlemanly remarks or behavior of an ungentle- 
manly kind are prohibited. 

PENALTIES. — The serving side loses its serve 
{'' side out ") for any illegal play of the ball, or other 
infringement of rules. In addition, the Referee may, 
for ungentlemanly conduct or addressing officials 
(by other than Captains), award a point to the oppo- 
nents for a first offense, and must award such a point 
for the second offense. 

The receiving side is penalized for any infringement 
of rules by the addition of a point to the opponents* 
score. 

For ungentlemanly conduct or addressing officials 
(except by Captains) by either team, the Referee may^ 
at his discretion, disqualify a player (exclude him 
from the game). 

SCORE. — Only the serving side scores^ with the 
exception of points awarded opponents for fouls. 

One point is scored every time the receiving team 
fails to return the ball over the net into the court of 
the serving team ; that is, allows it to touch the floor, 
or go out of bounds, or plays it contrary to rules. 

The team wins which first, in any way, scores 21 
points. 

OFFICIALS. — The officials consist of a Referee 
and two Linesmen. 

REFEREE. — The Referee is in charge of the game. 
His duties are as follows : 

(a) To start the game by calling ^^ Play ! " 



Officials: Outfit 469 

(b) To award the game to opponents if a team fails 
to appear one minute after play is called. 

(c) To blow his whistle for play to stop when either 
team plays the ball illegally or fails to properly return 
the ball. If this is done by the serving team, he calls 
^' Side out ! " and the serve passes to the opponents. 
If it is done by the receiving team, he calls '' Point ! " 
which means one point added to the score of the 
serving team. 

(d) He keeps the score. 

(e) He enforces the rules about gentlemanly behav- 
ior and not addressing officials. He may disqualify 
players for persistent breaking of these rules. 

(/) He notes that substitutes may enter the game 
only when the ball is dead, and that any player dis- 
placed by a substitute may not return to the game. 

(g) His decision on the score^ rules, fouls, and 
penalties is final. 

LINESMEN. — The main duty of these officials is 
to observe the ball as to in or out of bounds, '' good," 
or ^^ dead," as related to one end and side line. They 
stand at diagonally opposite corners of the court, each 
being responsible for reporting play on one end and 
one side line. 

The Referee may, if he desires, consult the Linesmen 
for information on other points of the play. 

Each Linesman is responsible for checking the 
proper serving order of one team, the list of players 
in this order being given him by the Captain before 
the game opens. 

OUTFIT. — THE BALL is a round, laced ball, 
usually made of pigskin, but sometimes of kid. It is 



470 Volley Ball 

somewhat smaller than a basketball, the official 
dimensions being not less than 26 nor more than 27 
inches in circumference. The weight must be not 
more than 9 nor less than 7 ounces. Volley balls cost 
from $2.50 to $4 each. 

THE NET is made of meshed twine similar to a tennis 
net. It must be at least 3 feet wide and 35 feet long. 
Nets cost from 35 to 50 cents each. 

MOVABLE STANDARDS for holding the net taut, 
level, and at proper height, cost, with net, $8.50. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Official Handbook of the Young Men^s Christian Association 
Athletic League. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New 
York, American Sports Publishing Company.) Official 
Rules adopted by the Physical Director's Society. 

Games for the Playground^ Home, School and Gymnasium. 
By Jessie H. Bancroft. (New York, The Macmillan 
Company.) A form of the game for large numbers and 
somewhat less formal than the preceding. The forma] 
game is followed in the description in this book. 



PART II 

^ TRACK AND FIELD GAMES 
AND 
ROWING RACES 

(a) General Procedure 

(b) Running and Walking Races 

(c) Jumping and Pole Vaulting 

(d) Weight Throwing 

(e) Rowing Races 

LIST OF EVENTS. — The so-called track and 
field games are essentially individual contests of 
strength, skill, speed, and endurance. In this they 
differ from the highly organized team play of most ball 
games, as the latter are played to-day. 

The track and field games officially provided for 
by the various authoritative organizations are hsted, 
with other games and sports, in the opening section of 
this book entitled '' Organized Athletics." The games 
described in the present section are : 

RUNNING AND WALKING RACES. — Sprints, Middle 
Distance, and Distance Track Races ; Relay Races ; 
Hurdle Races ; Cross-country Run ; Marathon Race ; 
Walking Race. 

JUMPING AND VAULTING. — Running Broad ; Run- 
ning High ; Standing Broad ; Three Standing Broad ; 
Standing High ; Running Hop, Step, and Jump ; Pole 
Vaulting. 

473 



474 Track and Field Games 

WEIGHT THROWING. — Shot Put ; Throwing the 
Discus; Throwing the JaveHn; Throwing the 56-lb. 
Weight ; Baseball Distance Throw ; Basket Ball 
Distance Throw. 

A contestant in track and field games should ob- 
serve carefully all points on the distinction between 
amateur and professional players, registration require- 
ments, etc., as explained in the opening section of this 
book. In addition he should be familiar with the 
following : 

CLASSIFICATION OF ATHLETES. — A NOV- 
ICE in any game or event is an athlete who has never 
won a prize, either first, second, third, or fourth, in 
a game or event in that particular class, in competition 
that was open to more than one organization, though he 
may have won such prizes in other classes of events. 
Thus he may be a novice in pole vaulting, but not in 
the running high jump. It is permissible for an athlete 
to enter as a novice for two or more events of the 
same class (for example, running) in the same meet, as a 
fifty-yard dash and a half-mile run ; but if he should 
win a prize in whichever of these events comes first 
on the program, he must withdraw from the second 
one, as he is no longer a novice in that class. 

A JUNIOR athlete is a registered, amateur athlete 
who has never won a first prize at any track or field 
championship meeting, though he may have won 
second, third, or fourth prizes. Having once won a 
junior championship, he may not again compete in any 
events as a junior, but must enter always thereafter 
as a senior. A junior may compete in the senior class, 
but a senior may not compete in the junior class. 



Classification of Athletes 475 

A SENIOR athlete is a registered, amateur athlete 
who has won a first prize in a junior competition in 
track and field games. 

A CHAMPION is an athlete who has won first place 
in a championship contest. This contest may be in 
his own club, or in open games {i.e., competition open 
to two or more organizations) ; or it may be in a par- 
ticular class, as for athletes of a certain weight, or 
for a particular class of institutions, as preparatory 
schools, or colleges ; or he may be a world champion. 

A champion is not necessarily one who has made 
the best record ever made in the event in which he 
competes ; he is only the one who comes out ahead 
in the particular meet or series of meets or games under 
consideration. For instance, an Intercollegiate cham- 
pion in the 100-yard dash in 1909 may have made a 
lower record (i.e., have run more slowly) than the 
Intercollegiate champion in that event in the previous 
year; but if he defeated in 1909 all competitors who 
entered for that event in that year, he was the 1909 
champion in the 100-yard dash. 

In the New York City PubHc Schools Athletic 
League, an athlete in the ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS is a 
NOVICE until he has won a medal in any event sanc- 
tioned by the League open to all elementary schools of 
the city. In the HIGH SCHOOLS an athlete is a NOVICE 
until he has won a prize in a competition open to two 
or more secondary school organizations. There are 
two classes of novices for high schools : i.e., novices in 
track events, and novices in field events, and the loss 
of noviceship in one class does not debar an athlete 
from competing as a novice in the other class. Players 



476 



Track and Field Games 



entering high schools from elementary schools are 
considered novices in high school events. A player 
does not lose his noviceship if a member of a winning 
track team ; only on the winning of a personal prize. 

A JUNIOR ATHLETE IN HIGH SCHOOLS is one under 
1 6 years of age; a SENIOR ATHLETE IN HIGH 
SCHOOLS is one under 21 and over 16 years of age, 
the age being counted on the day of the competition. 

WEIGHT-CLASSIFICATION. — In events where clas- 
sification of athletes is made by weight, the following 
applies : 



Midget . . . 
Light weight . 
Middle weight 
Unlimited weight 



Elementary 
Schools 



80 pounds 

95 pounds 

115 pounds 

Athletes of any 

weight 



High Schools 



100 pounds 

120 pounds 
Athletes of any 
weight 



ROUTINE FOR THE COMPETITOR —An ama- 
teur athlete, to compete in open games (i.e. compe- 
tition open to two or more organizations), must ob- 
serve the following procedure. 

1. REGISTRATION. — He must be duly registered as 
an amateur athlete and be in good standing as such. 
He will be assigned a number which he must wear 
in all games. 

2. ENTRY. — He must have made formal entry 
on the prescribed blank for the particular games and 
events contemplated. To fail to compete after such 
a formal entry is a breach of good faith for which a 



Routine for Competitor 477 

satisfactory excuse must be made to the Registration 
Committee. Should the Committee find that his 
failure to play was due to fear to compete with other 
entrants for the event, or any other reason not good 
and sufficient, the athlete may be suspended. 

RECEIVE HANDICAP. — If a player enters for handi- 
cap races^ an official handicapper will assign him his 
handicap according to his record, which is included 
in his apphcation for recognition as an amateur 
athlete ; or, at request, when he enters for the par- 
ticular games in question. 

3. REPORT TO CLERK OF COURSE. — An athlete 
must report to the Clerk of the Course as soon as he 
arrives at the place of the meet; and is immediately 
responsible to this official from then until the Starter's 
signal is given for the race, or, if not racing, until the 
Field Judges call his event. 

RECEIVE NUMBER. — The Clerk of the Course or 
an assistant will give him his number in appropriate 
form to wear conspicuously during the games. This 
is usually pinned on his back across the shoulders. 
The competitor is not allowed to start without this, 
unless by special permission from the Referee. 

4. COSTUME. — The athlete's dress must be proper 
for appearance before spectators^ and is subject to 
criticism from the Clerk of the Course, who is re- 
sponsible for the appearance on the track of any com- 
petitor dressed in an unseemly manner. No dressing 
or undressing is allowable within the '' inner circle," 
i.e. J within the running track. 

5. WEIGHING IN. — If the competition be one in 
which contestants are grouped according to weight, 



478 Track and Field Games 

the athlete reports, after dressing, to the official in 
charge of the scales and is " weighed in.'' His weight 
is written on a blank, which he then takes to the Clerk 
of the Course. 

6. ON TIME FOR EACH EVENT. — The player must 
learn from the Clerk of the Course at what time his 
events are to be called, and must be promptly on hand 
at the place of starting each competition for which he is 
entered. He may be excused by the Field Judges from 
field events to take his place in heats or trials in 
events previously started, but must return promptly 
when such heat or trial is over. 

RUNNING RACES. — The player will be as- 
signed by the Clerk of the Course to his lane in a sprint 
race, or, in other races, to his place or station on the 
mark or line from which the race is to start ; that is, 
whether he is to be on the inside, or second or third 
from it, etc. Sometimes these positions are decided 
by lot, as by tossing a coin. 

Another way to decide the place of players* or teams 
is with marbles, shaken in a leather bottle. Each 
marble is numbered, the numbers ranging from one 
up to the number of entrants. The Clerk of the 
Course then shakes the bottle and pours into each 
competitor's hand one marble. The number on 
this marble will be the position that the competitor 
will take, counting from the inside of the track; in 
other words, the runner who is fortunate enough to 
secure marble No. i is placed on the inside position ; 
No. 2 is placed next to No. i, and so on. 

Where there are so many competitors that all can- 
not run at once, and several heats have to be run, the 



Running Races 479 

player must run in the order assigned him by the 
Clerk of thp Course, which is presumably the order 
in which his number occurs on the program. 

THE START. — If too many are on scratch, in a 
race of over 220 yards, several lines are drawn, and 
some runners line up abreast of each other on these 
lines. Sometimes, when the distance to be covered 
(run) is a long one, the start is given by the Time- 
keeper's ^^ Go,'' instead of the Starter's pistol shot, a 
separate signal being given for each line, the Time- 
keepers noting the time at which each line starts. 

There are no trial heats in races over a half mile in 
length, and but one trial heat and a final in the middle 
distance races, up to and including, the half mile. 

If the race be a handicap race, the distance a player 
is to be handicapped will have been decided in advance 
from his previous record by an official handicapper, 
the athlete being required to fill out a special blank 
for this when he enters for the games. The Clerk 
of the Course will have these handicap figures and will 
assign him accordingly his mark from which to start. 
(See '' Clerk of the Course.") 

THE FORM in which a runner starts will vary accord- 
ing to the race. In sprints the crouching start is 
customary, but not compulsory ; this is also used in 
middle distance races up to the one quarter mile (440 
yards) race ; and it is used by the first runner in relay 
races ; also in hurdle races. In middle distance and 
distance races the standing start is usual. 

CROUCHING START. — This position has various 
names, and is sometimes known as the '^ kneeling," 
^^ handspring," or '' kangaroo" start. In this position 



480 Track and Field Games 

the hands are on the ground and each foot in a small 
hole dug for it back of the starting line (if oij an outdoor 
track) the object being to get a spring or push forward 
from the feet. This strong impetus overcomes all 
inertia at the start and enables the runner to take his 
most rapid pace at once instead of working up to it. 

The body should assume the upright position grad- 
ually — that is, during the first three or four strides 
— not at once. 

In detail the position for the crouching start is as 
follows : 

The fingers and thumb are placed on, or just behind, 
the starting line (^^ the scratch ")? the thumb stretched 
apart from the fingers. No part of the hands or any 
other part of the body must touch the ground over the 
line, or it counts as a false start. The hands should 
be just about shoulder width apart — not a wide 
stretch. The runner then crouches, kneeling on the 
right knee. The left foot should be from four to eight 
inches behind the starting line, and the right knee in 
line with the left instep. These distances may vary 
somewhat with the build of the runner. If running 
on a soft track, the player digs a small hole for the toes 
of each foot, the rear of the hole being perpendicular 
to form a solid resistance against which he may push 
in getting his start. In this position the body should 
be well over the mark, but it is considered a false 
start, for which the player is penalized (moved back- 
ward), if any part of the body touches the ground in 
front of the mark before the signal for starting. 

STANDING START. — The runner toes the Kne with 
his left foot; usually the forward (left) knee is bent 



Running Races 481 

and the weight thrown over it. The toe may be 
on the line, but not over it. 

SIGNALS. — For either the crouching or standing 
start three signals are given by the Starter : 

(i) ^^ On your mark ! '^ The player assumes posi- 
tion on the starting line, relaxed, without tension in 
the muscles ; if for the crouching start, he crouches, 
with the right knee resting on the ground. 

(2) " Get set ! '' This means to stiffen the muscles, 
lifting the rear knee, bending the body forward, 
intently listening for the pistol shot, ready for the 
spring forward on the third and final signal. 

(3) A pistol shot is the official signal for the start 
except in time handicap races, in which some com- 
petitors are to start on a given time after others or 
sometimes when there are too many contestants to 
start on the same line, as explained in first paragraph 
of '' The Start.'' Then the word " Go ! '' is given as 
a starting signal by the Timekeepers. 

For any part of the body to touch the ground beyond 
the line before the signal for starting is a foul. 

PENALTIES FOR FALSE STARTS. — If a player starts 
over the line before the pistol is heard, it is called a 
false start, and a penalty is inflicted by the Starter, 
who will move the offender back for his start. 

This penalty distance varies under the rulings of 
different organizations. The rules of some of the 
leading ones are as follows : 

In the Intercollegiate Association the penalty for false starts 
is the same for races of all distances ; that is, one yard for the 
first offense, another yard for a second offense, and disquali- 
fication for the third offense. These are counted for each heat 
21 



482 



Track and Field Games 



separately — that is, a contestant having made two false starts 
on a trial heat, would not be disqualified for one false start 
on a succeeding heat. In other words, second and succeeding 
heats begin the count over again. 

In the A.A.U., Y.M.C.A., and P.S.A.L. Rules, the penalties 
vary with the distance of the race, the ruling being uniform 
for all of these Associations, as follows : 





1ST 

Offense 


2D Offense 


3D Offense 


For races up to and including 






DisquaH- 


125 yards 


I yd. 


I more yd. 


fication 


For races over 125 yards and 






Disquali- 


including 300 yards 


2 yd. 


2 more yd. 


fication 


For races over 300 yards and 






Disquali- 


including 600 yards 


3 yd. 


3 more yd. 


fication 


For races over 600 yards and 






Disquali- 


including iooo yards 


4 yd. 


4 more yd. 


fication 


For races over 1000 yards and 






Disquali- 


including i mile 


5 yd. 


5 more yd. 


fication 


All distances over i mile 


10 yd. 


10 more yd. 


Disquali- 
fication 



The Starter should rule out of an event any competi- 
tor who tries to advance his starting position beyond 
that assigned him by the Clerk of the Course, whether 
that position be at scratch (the regular starting line), 
or (in the case of handicapped players) at a point in 
front of that line. 

THE RACE : FOULS. — The rules must be strictly 
observed by all runners in a track race. Throughout 
the running of a race, a runner is under the surveillance 
of the Referee, and official Inspectors, whom the 
Referee stations at different points to see that rules 
are obeyed. 



Running Races: Fouls 483 

The following are fouls : 

(a) To run without wearing a number, unless with 
the consent of the Referee. 

(b) To make a false start; i.e., to allow any part 
of the body to touch the ground beyond the starting 
Hne, before the signal for starting is given. The 
player is placed back for the first two such false starts 
as explained under '' Start.'' 

(c) To be coached or assisted in any way during the 
race. 

(d) To hinder or impede another competitor in any 
way. 

(e) To grasp the tape at finish with the hands. 

(/) To dispute the decision of the officials or to be. 
guilty of any unfair or ungentlemanly conduct before, 
during, or after the race. 

(g) To change his course, or cross to the inside of 
track in less than six feet in advance of nearest com- 
petitor. (Intercollegiate Assn., 2 paces.) 

(h) To change his course, or cross in front of a 
competitor under any circumstances, after making last 
turn before finish. 

A runner guilty of fouls is disqualified, i.e., loses 
the race, even though he should finish first. 

Should a foul occur in a trial heat, the offender will 
not be allowed to compete in succeeding heats. 

Such transgression of rules (fouls) counts whether 
committed intentionally^ or through carelessness or 
ignorance. It is the business of an athlete to know 
thoroughly the rules of the game, and it is as impor- 
tant to train himself in self-control to observe the rules, 
as to acquire speed and strength. 



484 Track and Field Games 

The Referee decides all of these points, assisted by 
the reports of his Inspectors, and it is a weak and 
unmanly athlete who would argue with a Referee, 
or grumble or dispute over his decision. Having 
placed himself under the officials in charge of a compe- 
tition, it is unsportsmanlike and unmanly to dispute 
their decisions. For such conduct a Referee has the 
power to exclude an athlete from further competition 
at the meet, and may even report the case afterward 
to the proper Registration Committee, which may 
result in a serious effect on the player's standing as 
an athlete, for all future time. 

Should a player be interfered with or hindered 
during a race by a competitor, or should he think a 
competitor has played unfairly in any way, or has not 
met the qualifications for entry, he may make a verbal 
protest at once, or afterward in writing, to the Referee. 
If made at the time, and the Referee should concede 
the complainant's claim of interference, the Referee 
may allow him to run in another heat ; at his discre- 
tion, this may be the successive heat, as though the 
runner had won a place for it in the preceding heat 
in which he was interfered with ; or if the interfer- 
ence occur in a final heat, the Referee may, at his 
discretion, have the heat run over again by the 
winners and the hindered athlete, or by any of the 
other competitors whom he thinks entitled to the 
privilege. 

THE FINISH of a race is a line drawn on the 
ground across the track. Usually (and always in 
official games) a '' tape '' (generally a length of soft 
worsted that will not cut the flesh) is drawn across the 



Running Races: Heats 485 

track immediately above this finish Hne, fastened to 
posts. The prescribed height of this tape for adults is 
4 feet from the ground. First place in a race is won 
(if there be no fouls) by the player who first entirely 
crosses the line (A.A.U. and Y.M.C.A. rules) or who 
first gets any part of the body (trunk, not feet, legs, 
head, or arms) over the finish line. (Intercollegiate 
rules.) In other words, while all organizations recog- 
nize the line on the ground as the finish line, and not 
the tape stretched above it, all except the Intercol- 
legiate require that the runner shall be judged other- 
wise than by his breasting the tape. 

The first runner over the line touches the tape with 
his breast, carrying it away with him as he runs 
beyond. To grasp the tape with the hands is not 
permissible. To avoid this, a runner often throws his 
arms either upward vertically, or downward behind 
him as he approaches the tape. The second and sub- 
sequent runners to cross the line are necessarily judged 
solely by the Une on the ground. 

HEATS. — When there are too many entrants for 
a given race for all to start at once, the race is run in 
heats. That is, a few of the contestants run first, 
their winner being noted for later trials ; then others 
are called for a second heat, and so on until all have 
run. These are trial heats. The winners in these 
different heats then compete against each other, in 
semi-finals, and the winners from these semi-final 
heats then run in the finals, the winner of the finals 
being the winner of the entire race. 

The order in which players will run in trial heats is 
printed on the program for all formal races, and that 



486 Track and Field Games 

order may not be departed from, except in case of 
fouls, or on permission of the Referee. The latter 
official may also add to the published number of heats 
should that prove necessary. 

No contestant may run in a final heat who has not 
run in trial heats. 

OFFICIALS. — QUALIFICATIONS. — Fair, honor- 
able competition in all athletic games, but especially 
in track and field meets, rests fully as much with the 
officials in charge as with the competitors. Laxity 
in enforcing rules, calling fouls, and inflicting pre- 
scribed penalties, is one of the prime causes of cheating 
and unfair play. Not only does this govern the tone 
of clean sport, but it works a moral harm to the com- 
petitor, especially to young men and boys, that cannot 
be too strongly condemned. 

No one should be asked to officiate actively at 
games simply because he happens to be a prominent 
person whom it is wished to honor. Such a person 
may be made an Honorary Referee or other official, 
but should not be given responsible duties unless he 
is known to have the power to perform them effec- 
tively. 

A competent official is one who knows thoroughly 
the rules and procedure, who is experienced in observa- 
tion of the sport, who is quick of perception, clear in 
judgment, and possessed of the decision and will 
power to enforce all regulations promptly and effec- 
tively. Easy-going individuals who will ^^ wait 
until the boys are a little older '' before enforcing 
rules, or who are '' sure it was not intentional and will 
overlook it just this once," or who " don't think those 



Officials: Referee 489 

He does not make decisions as to winners, but he 
has surveillance of the entire field, and all officials 
and competitors on it. 

His duties include all matters pertaining to the order 
of the program. That is, he gives the signal for the 
meet to begin, when all is ready ; and he may, where 
there are strong reasons for it, change the order of the 
published program. For races, he may add to the 
number of heats to be run, should that prove necessary, 
or alter the announced arrangement of heats ; but he 
may not transfer a contestant from one heat to another 
as printed in the program. 

The conduct of players is one of the important as- 
pects of a meet to be judged by the Referee. He may 
disquahfy for participation in the meet, and exclude 
from the grounds, any competitor who behaves in 
an ungentlemanly manner, to other competitors, or to 
the officials or spectators. Dispute as to the decision 
of judges is one such cause for disquahfication. 

This jurisdiction over the conduct of players ex- 
tends to fouls committed in a race. The Inspectors 
of a race are merely assistants to the Referee and re- 
port all fouls to him. They make no decision on these, 
such decisions resting wholly with the Referee. The 
latter may disqualify (exclude from the meet) a com- 
petitor whom he is convinced has intentionally 
interfered with another runner, or committed any 
other foul during the race. This extreme penalty is 
inflicted only for intentional fouls or those due to 
culpable carelessness. The Referee may allow the 
offended (hindered) competitor who has suffered from 
the foul, to have a new trial in the next round of heats 



490 Track and Field Games 

(if this occur in any but the last heat), or if such a foul 
occur in the final heat of a race, the Referee may, at 
his discretion, allow the remaining competitors to 
run a new race. 

THE CLERK OF THE COURSE is chiefly responsible 
for the executive management of running off a pro- 
gram at the time of an athletic meet. It is for him to 
see that contestants are on hand at the proper time 
for each event, properly attired and numbered, and 
that the events occur as given on the official pro- 
gram, except where the Referee sanctions or directs 
a change. A Clerk of the Course will provide him- 
self before an athletic meet with an official program 
containing the names and numbers of the contestants 
and the time at which each event will be called. He 
will also have in hand the distance, or time handi- 
caps, allowed in advance by the official handicapper 
who is employed by the Games Committee, which 
handicaps will have been determined from the previous 
records of the contestants. 

The first duty of the Clerk of the Course, on the 
occasion of an athletic meet, is to check off the contest- 
ants, who should report to him on their arrival at 
the ground and before going to the dressing room, 
l^he contestant will then learn from the Clerk of the 
Course at what time the events for which he has 
entered will be called. It is usual when athletes first 
report for the Clerk of the Course to give to each con- 
testant a placard printed with the number which ap- 
pears opposite his name on the program. This 
placard is to be worn conspicuously by the athlete and 
is usually pinned across the back on the shoulders. 



Officials: Clerk of the Course 491 

Certain preliminary duties belong to the Marshal 
and his Assistants before the Clerk of the Course calls 
contestants for the events. They see that no con- 
testants appear in the inner circle before being called 
for their events, and that at no time trainers or 
attendants are with them ; also that they leave the 
grounds promptly after an event ; but it is the duty 
of the Clerk of the Course to see that contestants are 
on hand at the point where the event is to begin or 
take place five minutes before the time for it is called. 
This he does by having one of his assistants (he is 
usually assigned two or more) call the event in the 
dressing rooms at least five minutes before the time 
for it to begin. The contestants should not wait for 
this call, but are supposed on their own responsibility 
to be at the appointed place in time ; but it is never- 
theless the duty of the Clerk of the Course to make this 
announcement, or have it made by one of his assistants. 

The contestants are to be checked off again on the 
program at the point where the event is to take 
place or begin, just before the time announced for it. 
In other words, it is the business of the Clerk of the 
Course to make sure that the contestants entered 
for the event are on hand before he signals to the 
Starter or other official, whose duties coordinate with 
his own, that everything is ready. Should any con- 
testant fail to appear, the Clerk of the Course will not 
delay the starting of the event, if he has discharged his 
own responsibility by having the event properly called 
in the dressing rooms. 

At races , the further duties of the Clerk of the 
Course are of great importance. 



492 Track and Field Games 

Having assured himself that all entrants for a race 
are present, it is his duty to assign them to their 
places, — that is, as to whether they shall run first, 
second, or third from the inner edge of the track. 
Detail methods for determining these places are ex- 
plained in ''GENERAL PROCEDURE." 

Having determined these places, the Clerk of the 
Course has no further duty connected with the races 
— except to get ready the men for the next heat. 

In handicap events, however, the Clerk of the Course 
places each competitor behind the mark from which he 
is to start, if the handicap be one of distance. If it be 
a time allowance, the Clerk of the Course gives to 
the Starter the number of each competitor so handi- 
capped, and the time allowance for each. 

The starting point for runners given an allowance 
is marked in advance of the meet with a white- 
wash line on the track; but sometimes the distance 
of each runner is indicated by a paper containing his 
number, fastened to the side of the track at the pre- 
scribed distance from the scratch line. It is usual to 
place at '^ scratch " the runner giving the greatest 
allowance {i.e., most heavily handicapped, called the 
scratch man) , and all others in advance of that line. 

Should any competitor try to '' steal " {i.e., advance 
himself beyond the mark assigned him) the Clerk of 
the Course must promptly notify the Starter of this 
fact. 

STARTER. — The Starter is the official who gives 
the signal on which the runners start in all races except 
time-handicap events. For all '' scratch " races 
(sprints, dashes, distance, middle-distance, relay and 



Officials: Starter 493 

hurdle races), the Starter is in charge of this part of 
the race, and his part is very important, as on the 
start the winning of a race largely depends. 

The Starter has nothing to do with seeing that all 
the contestants entered are present and wearing their 
respective numbers, or that places are drawn for or 
allotted (as first, second, or third, from the inner edge 
of the track) ; or that handicap marks are determined 
and the runners placed behind them. These pre- 
liminaries are all attended to by the Clerk of the 
Course and the management is taken up at this point 
by the Starter. 

This official should be provided with a blank-car- 
tridge pistol with which to signal the start of all races 
except time-handicaps. 'This pistol he should fire 
directly upward, with arm extended vertically over- 
head, so that Timekeepers may see the flash, as it is 
on this, and not on the sound of the report, that they 
start their watches to time a race. The runners, how- 
ever, start on hearing the report. The Starter may 
penalize (i.e., place back of the starting line) any run- 
ner who tries to '' beat the pistol " ; i.e., to anticipate 
the pulling of the trigger, or start as it is pulled rather 
than as a reaction to the sound of the report. Runners 
should look ahead down the track while waiting on the 
starting line — not at the pistol. 

The Starter gives three signals for starting — ■ 
(i) " On your mark ! '' (2) '' Get set ! '' (3) Pistol 
shot. 

^' On your mark!^' On this command each contest- 
ant takes the starting position on his mark in an 
easy, relaxed manner. The Starter must see that 



494 Track and Field Games 

no part of the runner's body is beyond the starting line. 
This means the fingers must not be over the Kne for the 
crouching start, or the toes for the standing start. 
They may be on the Hne — though preferably back 
of it, but not in advance of it. 

^^ Get set! " On this command the runners enervate 
the muscles, ready to spring forward on the sound 
of the pistol ; they should not be kept long in this posi- 
tion. A judicious Starter will see that all of the 
runners are steady and have a good ready. It is at 
this point that false starts are made. The Starter is 
the sole judge of these. 

Whenever a contestant starts over the line before the 
pistol shot, the Starter must handicap him by assign- 
ing him a new starting line at a specific distance back 
of the regular starting line or scratch, and then give 
his signal over again for all the runners to start to- 
gether. This penalty distance varies under the rulings 
of different organizations and is given in detail under 
" Penalties for False Starts.'' 

The Starter should rule out of an event any com- 
petitor who tries to advance his starting position 
beyond that assigned him by the Clerk of the Course, 
whether that position be at scratch (the regular start- 
ing line), or (in the case of handicapped players) at 
a point back of that Hne. 

The Starter must be very expert and judicious to 
know just when to fire his pistol. He should hold the 
contestants on their marks after his order tp ^' get 
set " long enough to see that all are steady, so that 
none will be taken at a disadvantage by the signal. 
They should not be held at this tension, however, until 



Officials: Starter 495 

they are tired. x\t his judgment, the Starter may 
allow the contestants to relax and get in position 
again if they do not impress him as having a good 
ready. 

If the pistol should be discharged by mistake (not 
purposely) the Starter may call the contestants back 
for a fresh start. A snap of the cap without a report 
of the pistol is not considered a signal. 

A Starter may use any kind of pistol, but blank 
cartridges are customary. The rulings require that a 
Starter shall have at least two good cartridges in his 
pistol before starting a heat or race. 

The Starter usually stands near to the marks, but 
slightly in advance of them, and to one side — usually 
on the outside of the track, to give the Inspectors and 
Referee unobstructed opportunity to watch for fouls 
when the contestants leave their marks. 

When there are too many contestants to run in one 
heat, the heats follow each other' in rapid succession, 
the contestants in the several heats being called to 
the mark by the Clerk of the Course as soon as a 
previous heat is finished. The Starter should have no 
unnecessary delay between the finish of one heat and 
the start of another. In successive trial heats, — i.e., 
those in which the same runners run over again to 
decide which shall enter the final race, — most ath- 
letic organizations provide on their official programs 
for a rest for the runners between, by interposing other 
events. 

A Starter's official relations to a race end when the 
runners leave the mark in response to his pistol report. 

In time-handicap events the Starter goes through 



496 Track and Field Games 

this same procedure up to the point of firing the pistol. 
In lieu of that he nods or signals to the first Time- 
keeper, who shouts ^' Go ! " for each contestant in 
turn to start. 

INSPECTORS. — These officials are needed for 
middle distance and long-distance races and for 
relays. They are seldom required for sprint races. 

The Inspectors in a race are Assistants to the Ref- 
eree. Their duty is to look for fouls during the course 
of the race and report these to the Referee. They have 
nothing to do with the start or finish of the race, or 
with the enforcement of penalties, nor does the final 
decision as to fouls rest with them. 

There are two or more Inspectors, — as many as 
are needed to watch the course. The Referee assigns 
them to their places. In relay races an Inspector 
is placed at each twenty-foot zone in which the touch- 
off must be made, to see that this occurs. In other 
races they are usually placed at the turns in the track, 
if the course be a curved one, or at intervals in a 
straightaway. 

The fouls for which Inspectors are to look are 

(j) Throwing the arms out side wise, or in any other way 
interfering with the progress of a competitor. 

(2) In races on a straight course, crossing into another 
competitor's lane. 

(3) In races having one or more turns in the course, crossing 
in front of a competitor at less than six feet distance in front 
of him. {The Intercollegiate Association, and Public Schools 
Athletic League allow crossing at two strides in front.) No such 
crossing may be done under any rules after the last turn is 
made. 

(4) Receiving assistance or coaching during a race. 



Officials: Judge of Walking 497 

(5) In relay races the Inspector observes if the ''touch- 
off" has been made duly and within the twenty-yard zone, or, 
if a baton be handed from one relay to the next, if that occur, and 
in the proper zone. 

An Inspector should report promptly to the Referee 
any fouls which he observes^ and the number of the 
offender. Should any competitor claim that he has 
been fouled, the Inspector should report to the Referee 
what he has seen of the incident. 

In hurdle races it is the duty of an Inspector to note 
if hurdles are overturned, as a record cannot be 
accredited to a competitor who overturns any of the 
hurdles. 

JUDGE OF WALKING. — This official is the sole 
judge of a w^alking event. He may have assistants if 
needed, but his own judgment is final as to the fairness 
of the walk throughout the course. He has nothing to 
do with the start or finish of the race, which are in 
charge of the same ofiicials who are in charge of the 
start and finish of the running races — Clerk of Course, 
Timekeepers, Starter, and Judges of Finish. 

The Judge of Walking must decide whether a com- 
petitor be running or walking. The distinction is 
determined by whether or not both feet are off the 
ground at once. If they are, it is a foul. If such 
unfair walking occurs before the last 220 yards of a 
race, the Judge cautions the competitor. He may 
do this twice, but on a third offense must disqualify 
the walker and have him leave the course. If the 
unfair walking occur during the last 220 yards, it dis- 
quahfies the competitor whether it be his first, second, 
or third offense. 

2 K 



498 Track and Field Games 

JUDGES AT THE FINISH. — The sole duty of these 
oJBEicials is to decide which runners in a race '^ come in/' 
or cross the Kne, first, second, third (and fourth or 
fifth if those places be noted). There is one Judge 
for each of the three (or more) places — that is, three 
Judges if three places are to score ; four Judges if four 
places are to score, etc. 

Each Judge decides but for one place, and before the 
race starts the Judges determine between themselves 
which shall note the winner, which the second to 
finish, which the third, etc. 

The decision of a Judge is final, and may not be 
appealed. In case of disagreement, the judgment of 
the majority decides. 

A Judge should stand directly in line with the finish, 
so that he looks straight across its length. It is 
usual for a strand of soft worsted, called the '^ tape," 
to be stretched 4 feet above the line. In official 
meets this tape must be fastened to posts and may 
not be held in the hand. For adults this tape is 
four feet above the ground. The winner of a race 
^^ breasts the tape," i.e., carries this away with him 
on his breast. He may not touch it first with 
his hands or arms. Succeeding runners are judged 
solely by their crossing with their feet the line on the 
ground. 

It should be clearly understood that the winner of a 
race is not necessarily he who first breasts the tape ; 
this is merely an aid to the Judges. A runner must 
be entirely across the whitewashed line on the ground, 
feet and all, to have finished. Should he fall over the 
line, he would be considered as having finished, if his 



Officials: Timekeepers 499 

entire body were beyond it, but not if any part were 
on the line. 

{In Intercollegiate rules the crossing of the line by the 
torsOj as distinguished from feet, head, hands or arms, is 
the determining point.) 

TIMEKEEPERS. — For official records, three Time- 
keepers must note the time of the event, and three 
are therefore required for every official meet. 

A Timekeeper uses a stop watch that will record 
fractions of a second (fifths). He should hold the 
watch in either hand and start or stop the watch with 
his forefinger. He should stand in line with the finish, 
watch the starter's pistol, and start his watch, not 
by the sound of the report, but by the flash. For 
the finish he should watch the runners as they 
come down the stretch. As the first man's breast 
touches the tape, or his foot crosses the fine, the watch 
for first place should be stopped, and so for each 
runner, by his respective Timekeeper. If the hand 
stops between the second and a fifth mark thereafter, 
the time is if second; in other words, the runner is 
never given the benefit of the fraction of a fifth of a 
second but that fraction is added to his record. 

In time-handicap events a Timekeeper also gives 
the signal for contestants to start. In such events the 
Starter goes through all of his usual duties up to the 
point of firing the pistol. He then nods or signals 
to the first Timekeeper, who shouts ^^ Go ! " as a signal 
to each runner in turn, as his watch indicates that 
the time allowance has expired. 

The Scorer obtains the time from the Timekeepers 
and makes the official record of it. 



500 Track and Field Games 

SCORER. — All official records in a meet are re- 
corded by this official. The information in each case 
he obtains from the other officials, who judge that 
particular point, or from his assistants. For races, 
he learns from the Judges at Finish and the Time- 
keepers the order and time in which competitors 
finish ; from Field Judges or the Scorer's assistants 
assigned to them, the records scored in field events. 

In races of more than one lap on a curved track, 
the Scorer tallies the laps made by each competitor. 
He rings a bell, or announces otherwise, when the 
leading runner enters the last lap. 

In all races it is desirable to have a Scorer at both 
the start and finish of the race. 

In field events, the Scorer (or his assistants when 
events are run off simultaneously) call the contest- 
ants as their first, second, or third trials are to be 
made. An accurate record must be made of each of 
the three trials of each competitor. 

General methods and rules for scoring are given in 
this section under the general title of '' Scoring," and 
are explained in detail for each event in the descrip- 
tion of that event. 

FIELD JUDGES. — These officers have general man- 
agement of the field events and are the sole judges 
of these events, which include all jumping, weight- 
throwing, and vaulting contests. There should not be 
less than three field judges, and, in large meets, where 
several events are '' run off " simultaneously, three 
Field Judges are assigned to each such event. 

The Field Judge in charge of any event should see 
that it starts promptly at the time scheduled in the 



Officials: Field Judges 501 

program. That means that before the time so an- 
nounced he should 

(i) Inspect the field and equipment for his particular event, 
weighing and measuring all implements and distances for which 
there are ofiicial specifications. 

(2) Check off the competitors to see that all are present ; and 

(3) Have the running broad jump and pole vaulting con- 
testants mark in advance their paces for the approach to the 
take-ofi\ as explained for those events. 

(4) Have any trial practice done before the event is called 
and not afterward. 

It not infrequently happens that a competitor in a 
field event, who is also entered for races, is called to 
the track for a heat in running before finishing his 
trials in the field. Under such circumstances, it is 
customary to give precedence to the running, but the 
Field Judge must be sure that the contestant returns, 
and, after a reasonable rest, finishes his field event. 

The Field Judges measure all distances in jumping, 
throwing, or vaulting, and their decision on such 
matters is final. Should there be a disagreement 
among the Judges, the majority governs. These 
results are given to the official Scorer or his assistant. 

One of the Judges in each event should keep an ac- 
curate record for each contestant entered, and, where 
three trials are allowed, record all three, though the 
highest is taken as the contestant's record in the event. 

In case of a tie in a ''scratch'' contest (no handi- 
cap) each of the tied competitors is entitled to three 
more trials, and the one making the farthest record in 
these additional trials receives the award. This same 
procedure is followed for a second or succeeding ties. 



502 Track and Field Games 

In handicap contests, ties are decided as follows : 

The award goes to the competitor who received the 
least allowance. 

When a tie occurs between competitors having the 
same handicap allowance, the same method is followed 
as in scratch events, described above. 

In high jumping and pole vaulting ties are decided 
as explained under the rules for those events. 

The enforcement of rules, and penalties for fouls, 
are entirely within the jurisdiction of the Field Judges. 
They should be inflexible on these, as only in this way 
can an entirely equal and fair competition be insured. 

Any dispute of the Judges' decision by a contestant is 
a misdemeanor within the jurisdiction of the Referee. 
Any flagrant or repeated case of this kind should be 
reported at once to the Referee, and, at his discretion, 
he may rule the offending competitor from the field. 

MARSHAL. — This official is essentially an assist- 
ant to the Referee in controlling individuals on the 
field. He must not allow any but competitors and 
officials on the infield, and must see that competitors 
leave the field promptly when the events are over for 
which they are entered. The Marshal should also 
enforce promptly and effectively the rule that forbids 
all coaching of contestants while on the field. He shall 
forbid any dressing or undressing on the infield (except 
the use of robes between events) . 

PRESS STEWARD. — This official is charged with 
gathering and giving correct information to the news- 
paper press. This includes the names of contestants, 
times, distances, and records of performances, and any 
other information relative to the meet. 



Scoring 503 

ASSISTANTS to any official are under the direction 
of that official for the performance of any duties con- 
nected with the position. 

SCORING. — In individual competitions, such as 
races, jumping, etc., a certain number of points is 
awarded for first, second, third, and sometimes fourth 
and fifth places. 

First place counts 5 points. 
Second place counts 3 points. 
Third place counts i point. 

When four places score : 

First place counts 5 points. 
Second place counts 3 points. 
Third place counts 2 points. 
Fourth place counts i point. 

When fi.ve places score, they count as follows : 

First place counts 5 points. 
Second place counts 4 points. 
Third place counts 3 points. 
Fourth place counts 2 points. 
Fifth place counts i point. 

TIES. — In case of a tie, the points are divided 
between the tied contestants. Thus, if two players 
be tied for second place, which scores 3 points, they 
score 1.5 points. A tied race is sometimes run over 
at the discretion of the officials, and there are special 
methods for determining ties in events which involve 
the measurement of height or distance. These meth- 
ods are explained with those events. 

When the first place is a tie in which the score is 
divided, third place is given 2 points. 



504 Track and Field Games 

Thus a club or college may win first place in two 
events, as the 220-yard dash (5 points) and the run- 
ning broad jump (5), second place in two other events 
(3-3), and third place in another (i), scoring in all 
17 points. If this be a higher total than that scored 
by the competing groups, this team wins. 

As the players from one club or institution each con- 
tribute to the total result, though only one player may 
take part in each event, they thus form a team. 
In open sports (those in which more than one organiza- 
tion takes part) the number of entries (players or 
competitors) for each event (competition or game), is, 
if limited, stipulated in preliminary announcements 
and may include two or many contestants. 

SCORE CARDS OR PROGRAM. — (The blank spaces 
after ist, 2d, and 3d are to be filled in by the number 
of the contestant coming in first, second, or third in 
that heat. All competitors so entered run in the next 
heat.) 

100-YARD DASH (TRIAL HEAT) (95 ENTRIES) 

ist heat won by 2d 3d Time 

2d heat won by 2d 3d Time . 

3d heat won by 2d 3d Time 

4th heat won by 2d 3d Time '. 

5th heat won by 2d 3d Time 



loo-YARD DASH (SEMI-FINALS) 

ist heat won by 2d 3d Time 

2d heat won by 2d 3d Time 

100-YARD DASH (FINAL) 

ist heat won by 2d 3d 4th Time. 



History 505 

HISTORY. — The beginning of the individual 
competitions now customarily grouped under the title 
of Track and Field Athletics, is prehistoric. Prob- 
ably such trials of skill have always been instinctive 
with all races. Our earliest known records of such 
events are found in Greek literature, notably in the 
''Iliad" and ''Odyssey" of Homer, and in Pindar's 
"Odes of Victory." 

Greek sculptors found many of their best subjects 
in athletic games, notable examples being the Dis- 
cobolus, or Discus Thrower, and the Wrestlers. 

In Greece the games were played at four stated 
intervals, the Olympic games (played at Olympia in 
Elis every four years), and the Pythian, Nemeian, and 
Isthmian games. All of these were held in honor of 
some god. The importance of these games to the 
national life may be judged by the fact that the games 
were so associated with the highest culture of the time 
that the festivals drew together the greatest poets, 
philosophers, orators, and artists, whose achievements 
were also there displayed. The contestants were 
themselves examples of balanced culture, and the 
recipients of high honors. 

Athletic events in Homer's time consisted in chariot 
racing, boxing, wrestling, foot racing, and javeKn 
throwing. The Olympic contests, which belong to a 
later date, were probably, at first, foot races only. 
Other events were gradually added until the pen- 
tathlon was established about the i8th Olympiad. 
This consisted of leaping, spear throwing, discus 
pitching, running, and wrestling. Boxing and chariot 
racing were added in the 23d Olympiad. A com- 



5o6 Track and Field Games 

peting athlete was obliged to enter all five contests 
in the pentathlon, thus showing his " all-round " 
training. 

The Greek and Roman games degenerated rapidly 
when so much prestige and indirect advantage accrued 
to a victor that, although the prizes themselves were 
mere symbols of honor (wreathes or palm branches), 
the contestants spent all of their time training for the 
games. Thus early came the distinction between 
amateur and professional standards. 

In the age of chivalry, individual contests in strength 
and skill were again popular, but their character was 
governed by the use of armor and the weapons then in 
vogue. 

The modern development of athletic contests dates 
from the middle of the last century. So far as known, 
the Olympic Club of San Francisco, founded in i860, 
is the oldest organization in this country devoted to 
amateur athletics; amateur athletic games were 
held in New Jersey in 1863 ; but the New York 
Athletic Club, founded in 1866, is credited with being 
the first organization to develop track and field games. 
One of its founders, Mr. William B. Curtis, is referred 
to as the father of American track and field athletics. 
In England, the first track and field games between 
Oxford and Cambridge were played in 1864. The 
amateur Athletic Union, one of the largest organiza- 
tions governing and fixing the standards for amateur 
sport in the United States, was organized in 1888, and 
later there was merged with it The National Associa- 
tion of Amateur Athletes of America. The name of 
Mr. James E. Sullivan is indissolubly connected with 



Bibliography 507 

the Amateur Athletic Union, and with the entire move-" 
ment for organized amateur sport. The Intercol- 
legiate Association of Amateur Athletes of America 
was founded in 1891, and the Athletic League of the 
Young Men's Christian Association of North America 
in 1896. 

A revival of the Greek Olympic games, in the form 
of international contests, took place in 1896, and have 
since recurred at intervals of four years. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Official Handbooks or Rule Books of the Amateur Athletic Union, 
Intercollegiate Association, Young Men^s Christian Asso- 
ciation, Public Schools Athletic League, GirW Branch of The 
Public Schools Athletic League. Spalding's Athletic Library. 
(New York, American Sports Publishing Company.) 

Athletic Almanac. Spalding's Athletic Library. An annual 
compilation of records in the different events. (New 
York, American Sports PubKshing Company.) 

Spalding's Athletic Library. For many handbooks on the 
different Track and Field events and coaching advice 
from experts; also for laying out of athletic fields and 
conduct of meets. 

Olympic Games. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, 
American Sports Publishing Company.) 

Practical Track and Field Athletics. By John Graham and 
EUery H. Clark. (New York, Fox, Duffield & Company.) 
Various styles of form described and illustrated. 

Track Athletics in Detail. (New York, Harper & Bros.) 
Excellently illustrated. 

Athletic Training for School Boys. By George W. Orton. 
Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports 
Publishing Company.) 

Rowing and Track Athletics. By Arthur Ruhl and Samuel 
Crowther. (New York, The Macmillan Company.) 



5o8 Track and Field Games 

'The Athlete's Guide, By James E. Sullivan. Spalding's 
Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Pub- 
lishing Company.) 

Olympian Field Events; Their History and Practice. By 
Frederick A. M. Webster. (London, G. Newnes, Pub. 
1913.) 

The Book of Athletics. By Paul Withington. (Boston^ 
Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Company.) Illustrated from 
many photographs of athletes and athletic events. 



GLOSSARY 

Amateur. One who plays only for the pleasure of a game, or 

for its physical, mental, moral, or social benefits. One 

who has not competed or coached for money, nor played 

with nor against professionals. 
Balk. To run under the cross bar, or step over the restraining 

line, in a high jump ; or to over-run a broad-jump take-off. 
Breasting the tape. Act of winner in a running race, when 

carrying away on the breast the woolen thread stretched 

four feet above the finish line. 
Champion athlete. Winner of first place in a championship 

meet. 
Dash. Short running race ; sprint. 
Dead heat. A race in which two or more winners are tied 

for first place. 
Discus. The circular disc used in the revival of the classic 

Greek discus throw. 
Disqualify. To declare a player out of a competition, for 

infringement of some rule. 
Dual meet. A meet or contest between any two organiza- 
tions, as two clubs, or colleges, or a club and a college, as 

distinguished from open competition. 
Entry. Recording of a player's name with a proper official, 

to signify that the contestant will compete in an athletic 

meet. 
Form. The manner of performing. 
Foul. An act contrary to rules. 



Glossary 509 

'^Get set." — Second order given in starting the competitors 
in a running race. 

^^Go." Final order to start competitors in a running race, 
when pistol is not used. 

Handicap. An extra burden, as of added distance or weight, 
placed on a more proficient competitor, to equalize his 
competition with one less proficient. The less proficient 
player is said to be given, or allowed, the handicap. 

Heat. A preliminary race. Trial heats are preliminary 
races, to eliminate all but those who start in the "final" 
heat or race. 

Hurdle race. Running race over obstacles. 

Javelin. Long pointed pole, to be thrown for distance. 

Junior athlete. One, who has never won a first prize at 
any championship meet.' 

Lane. Roped aisle, in which competitors run. 

Lap. One round of a track or course, which must be traversed 
more than onoe to complete a given distance. 

Long distance race. One mile or more. 

Middle distance race. From 300 yards to one mile. 

Novice. A registered amateur athlete, who has never won 
a prize in the event in which he competes. 

"On your mark." PreHminary order to runners, equivalent 
to "Step to your starting line." 

Open competition, meet or games. Competitive events 
open to any organizations as distinguished from dual, or 
other limited meets. 

Pit. Ground dug up into which jumper falls after jump- 
ing. 

Pole. Pole used to carry body over cross-bar in "pole vault" 
event 

Professional. One who competes for a cash prize, or plays 
with or against professionals. 

"Quarter." Quarter mile. 

Register. To send in one's name, record and fee to governing 
body. 

Relay race. Race in which each runner covers only a por- 
tion of the course. Each runner is called a relay. 



510 Track and Field Games 

Runway. Course, along which a jumper runs before he takes 
his jump. 

Score. Number of points won, or the written record of these. 

Scratch. Scratch hne , the mark from which a race is meas- 
ured. 

Scratch man , the competitor who starts on the scratch 
Hne. In a handicap race, the handicapped competitor 
(the one who gives allowances to others) , is placed back of 
the scratch line, the runner with the greatest allowance 
being placed on scratch. 

Scratch race , — all competitors ^^on scratch,'' i.e., no 
handicaps. 

Scrub. A scrub race or game is one for which the contestants 
have not trained in advance; impromptu; for amuse- 
ment only, and not for prizes or records. 

Senior athlete. Registered athlete, who has won first prize 
in a junior competition. 

Semi-finals. Trial heats, held just before the final heat. 

Shot. Round metal weight, to be thrust for distance. 

Shot-put. Field event in which shot is thrown. 

Sprint. To run at full speed; sometimes called a "dash.'' 
A running event in which one runs throughout at full 
speed. 

Straightaway. A race course without turns. 

Take-ofe. Board from which broad jumpers spring. 

Tape. Woolen thread stretched over the finish line in a race 
to help in determining the winner. 

Team. In track and field athletics, all competitors who are 
trying to win points for the same organization. 

Touch-off. Act of a relay runner when meeting a team-mate, 
who will run in his place ; they must touch hands within 
a given zone. 

Track. Cinder or dirt path, on which runners compete. 

Training. Getting into better, or keeping in good condition, 
for a particular event. 

Weigh in. To be weighed, before competing in an event 
limited to those of or below a certain weight. 



RUNNING AND WALKING RACES 



RUNNING RACES 

KINDS AND DISTANCES — Various running 
races are included in athletic games. Those especially 
designated by the leading organizations, are : 

SHORT-DISTANCE RACES (sprints, dashes — 50 to 
300 yards) . 

MIDDLE-DISTANCE RACES (300 yards to I mile). 

LONG-DISTANCE RACES (10 to 26 miles). 
CROSS-COUNTRY RUNS. 
MARATHON . 

RELAY RACES, HURDLE RACES (l20 and 220 
yards) . 

WALKING RACES (| to 2 miles); 

The sprints, relays, distance races, and hurdle races 
are called track events, as they are usually run on a 
specially prepared track. Those of the shorter dis- 
tances (up to 220 yards) are usually straightaway 
races — that is, they are run on straight tracks with- 
out turns. The longer races are usually run over 
curved tracks that have several laps or rounds to the 
mile. The cross-country runs, steeple chases, and 
hare and hounds are run across the open country, 
often, though not invariably, irrespective of prescribed 
paths. 



2L S13 



SPRINT RACES (DASHES) 

DEFINITION. — Sprint and dash are inter- 
changeable terms. They indicate a run for a distance 
short enough to admit of maximum speed throughout. 
Three hundred yards is regarded as the maximum 
sprinting distance, and anything less than that, of 
course, comes also within the classification. One 
hundred yards is the most popular sprinting distance 
for adults. 

THE COURSE. — Dashes or sprints are generally 
run over specially prepared tracks. Out of doors, 
these are usually the cinder path of the athletic field ; 
sometimes a grass path. Indoors, the usual armory or 
gymnasium floor is' most often used. 

The shorter dashes are usually straightaway races ; 
that is, they are run over a straight course that has 
no turns. While a straight course is a manifest ad- 
vantage in a run in which all effort is needed for con- 
centration on speed, such a course is not an invariable 
requirement, and the longer dashes, especially, are 
often run over curved courses. 

Official rules require that for all championship 
races under and including 300 yards, '^ each competitor 
shall have a separate course, properly roped, staked 
and measured, whether the race be run on a straight 
path or around one or more curves.". These individual 
courses, or lanes, generally measure from 3 J to 4I feet 
in width and are marked with rope run through low 

514 



The Race 515 

stanchions, or, especially in indoor races, with a white 
marker on the ground. The material for lanes for 
sprint races, consisting of the stanchions of official 
height (18 inches) and rope to run through them, may 
be purchased at $15 per set for four 100-yard lanes. 
On curved tracks the length of the course is measured 
on a line 18 inches outward from the inner curbing of 
the track, except on incUned, padded running tracks 
indoors, when the distance is measured through the 
center of the padding. 

FORM is of the greatest importance in sprinting 
as in all other athletic events. A poor manner of 
starting, running, and finishing may lose the race even 
to a very speedy runner. 

There are differences of opinion, even among cham- 
pions, as to many points of form, and to some extent 
these may have to be decided for each individual by 
experimentation ; but every runner should know the 
best usage and is strongly urged to read, for both 
form and training, the books mentioned in the bibli- 
ography. Only the most salient points can be given 
here. 

START. — The method of starting in a sprint race 
is of the greatest importance, as in so short a distance 
every bit of impetus acquired, or inertia to be over- 
come before full speed is attained, shows strongly 
in the result. The so-called crouching start is almost 
universally used for sprint races or dashes, though 
there is no rule about this. For details of this, see 
section on ^^ general procedure. '^ 

THE RACE. — The position of feet and legs in run- 
ning should be straight ahead ; that is, the foot should 



5i6 Sprint Races (Dashes) 

be in the straight-foot position, the toes pointing 
directly forward, neither inward nor outward. Each 
foot should strike the ground directly in front of its 
former position, carried there by a directly forward 
motion of the thigh and knee, with no sidewise 
curves in the motion of the knee in transition. Knees 
should be raised more than in distance running. For 
a sprint race the maximum speed is held through- 
out. The arms should touch easily. It is con- 
sidered bad form, and a disadvantage to the runners, 
for the arms to swing up across the body. This also 
places the runner at a disadvantage if the arms are 
^' tied up " ; i,e,, with the forearms held up across 
the chest or unbent. The entire body should be in- 
clined slightly forward. To turn the head frequently 
to see other runners is a bad habit to be avoided. 
It places the runner doing it at a disadvantage 
by unnecessarily using energy and preventing con- 
centration of attention. 

THE FINISH should be made with the hands thrown 
upward, or downward and backward, to avoid grasp- 
ing the tape, as that is not permissible. The chest 
should be the part of the body to touch the tape. 

RULES. — Competitors should observe very care- 
fully all regulations given under ^^ General Pro- 
cedure." For convenience, the fouls are listed here 
also. 

FOULS in any running race are as follows : 

(a) To run without wearing a number unless with 
the consent of the Referee. 

(b) To make a false start ; i,e., to allow any part of 
the body to touch the ground beyond the starting line 



speed: Records 517 

before the signal for starting be given. The player is 
placed back for the first two such false starts as ex- 
plained under ^' Start "in " General Procedure '' and 
disqualified for a third offense. 

(c) To be coached or assisted in any way during the 
race. 

(d) To hinder or impede another competitor in any 
way. 

(e) To cross into another lane. 

(/) To grasp the tape at finish with the hands. 

(g) To dispute the decision of the officials or be 
guilty of any unfair or ungentlemanly conduct before, 
during, or after the race. 

A runner guilty of fouls is disqualified, i.e., loses the 
race, even though he should come in first at the finish. 

PROTESTS. — If a runner has been hindered by the 
fouls of a competitor, he may at once make verbal 
protest to the Referee, and at the discretion of the 
latter may be allowed to run again. 

SPEED: RECORDS. — The sprinting speed of 
the fastest runners averages a fraction more than 
ten yards to each second. The following amateur 
records are not intended to give the latest records, 
but only figures that may serve for comparison. 



5i8 



Sprint Races (Dashes) 



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MIDDLE-DISTANCE AND DISTANCE TRACK 
RACES; MARATHON 

DEFINITION : A MIDDLE-DISTANCE RACE is 

between 300 yards and i mile (1760 yards). 

A DISTANCE RACE is from i to 10 miles or more. 

A MARATHON RACE. — This is the longest of races 
— 25 miles or over — and has only been known in 
athletic practice since the first modern Olympic games 
in 1896. It has become customary in America to call 
any running race of from 10 to 25 miles a Marathon. 

This is an endurance race commemorating one of the most 
famous incidents in classic history (490 B.C.) in which, after the 
Greeks were victorious in a great battle against invading Persians 
on the plain of Marathon, an unknown soldier ran the entire dis- 
tance from the battlefield to the city of Athens (26 J miles) to 
tell of the victory. He dropped dead immediately after deliver- 
ing the message. 

The fundamental difference between distance races 
and sprint races or dashes, aside from the mere fact of 
distance, lies in their differing physiological demands. 
Sprint races (300 yards or under) are run at maximum 
speed throughout, and their chief physiological strain 
is upon nervous energy. Distance races (i mile 
and above) are more dependent on endurance, es- 
pecially of heart and lungs, than of speed. Races 
over 300 yards in length, and less than i mile, are 
called middle-distance races, and partake of both the 
above characteristics, requiring both high speed and 

519 



520 Distance Races 

endurance, though the maximum speed is not main- 
tained throughout the entire race. 

Some rules differ in middle distance and distance 
races from the rules for sprint races, as follows : 

There are no trial heats above one half mile ; winners 
are determined by the time made or order of finish. 

The players do not run in lanes. Although each is 
assigned a place on the starting line, it is permissible, 
before the last turn is made, to cross in front of an- 
other runner if at a distance of not less than six feet in 
advance of him. (The Intercollegiate Association 
allows this crossing in front of a competitor at two 
strides in front of him.) 

The Scorer keeps tally of the laps or number of 
rounds of the track and rings a bell when the leading 
man enters the last lap. 

The form of running, and sometimes of starting, 
differs considerably from sprinting. In this lies the 
only difference of procedure between sprints and 
middle-distance or distance races. 

DISTANCES. — The most popular middle distances 
are 440 yards (J mile) and 880 yards Q mile). 

Distance track runs are i mile and over, the most 
popular distances being i, 2, 3, 5, and 10 miles. 
Distance running has been done up to 120 miles. 

The distances provided for officially by various 
organizations (though they do not exclude other dis- 
tances) are given with the speed records in the table 
at the close of this section on '' Middle-distance 
Races.'' 

THE COURSE. — The course for middle-distance 
races is usually over a specially prepared, out-of-doors 



start 521 

cinder or grass track. If indoors, it may be either a 
padded, circular track around a gymnasium, or a 
circular or oval track marked on an armory floor. 

On curved tracks the length of the course is meas- 
ured 18 inches outward from the inner edge of the 
track. On an indoor, curved, padded track, the 
course is measured along the center of the padding. 

There are no special lanes as in sprint races, although 
places are assigned just before the start of the race 
by the Clerk of the Course. Sometimes competitors 
toss for choice of place. A place nearer the inside of 
the track, being shorter than a place farther out, is 
considered a more advantageous position. A runner 
may cross to this inside position during the course of 
the race, when six feet ahead of a competitor, but 
not when nearer to him (except at two paces, under 
Intercollegiate rules). After turning the last curve, 
however, and when both are on the straightaway to 
the finish, no runner may cross into the imaginary 
lane in which a competitor is running. 

The finish must be a straightaway. 

FORM. — As in all athletic games, form is of capital 
importance in middle-distance and distance races, as it 
determines the economical use of force which may 
decide the race. In some respects the form differs 
from that for sprint races (dashes), a different method 
of starting being used, and, in the longer distances, 
there is difference in gait and speed in the run. The 
finish is the same as in sprint races. 

START. — There is no rule about starts, but custom 
is as follows : 

Up to J mile (440 yards) the crouching start used 



522 Distance Races 

for sprinting is generally used, as the middle distances 
(between 300 yards and one mile) really combine the 
elements of sprinting and distance races (speed and 
endurance) and the time gained at the start is there- 
fore of much importance. The crouching start is ex- 
plained in detail under " General Procedure '' at the 
beginning of the Track and Field Section. 

For races above the quarter mile a standing start 
is usually made. 

THE RACE. — The gait is easier than in sprinting — ■ 
not so much tension and not so far up on the toes, 
except at the start, and sometimes at the finish, when 
sprinting is used. The general gait is a long, easy 
stride, with a straightforward action. The position 
of the feet and legs in running should be straight ahead, 
that is, the foot should be in the straight-foot position, 
the toes pointing directly forward, neither inward nor 
outward. Each foot should strike the ground directly 
in front of its former position, carried there by a 
directly forward motion of the thigh and knee, with 
no side wise curves in the motion of the knee in transi- 
tion. The arms hang easily. It is considered bad 
form, and a disadvantage to a runner, to swing the 
arms up across the body ; it also places the runner at a 
disadvantage if the arms are '' tied up " ; i.e., with the 
forearms held up across the chest. The entire body 
should be inclined forward so that the center of gravity 
is over the feet as they strike the ground. To turn the 
head frequently to see other runners is a bad habit, 
to be avoided : it places the runner doing it at a dis- 
advantage by unnecessarily using, and preventing 
concentration of, attention. 



Rules: Fouls 523 

CHANGES IN GAIT. — There should be a fast start 
in the first part of a race, then long, easy strides should 
be taken with the heels lower, and finally the com- 
petitor should sprint upon his toes to the tape. 

FINISH. — This is usually made with the hands 
thrown upward or downward and backward. The 
chest should be the part of the body that fi.rst touches 
the tape. 

SUMMARY OF RULES. — On a straight track a 
runner must keep his respective position from start to 
finish. On a curved track, he may cross in front of a 
competitor to get a more advantageous position on 
the inner side of the track if not less than six feet in 
advance. (The Intercollegiate Association allows this 
crossing two paces in advance.) This crossing may 
not be done after turning the last turn before the 
finish. From this last turn to the finish Hne each 
competitor must keep his own place and make this 
part of the race a straight course. 

Throughout the race a runner should observe care- 
fully all the regulations given for Running Races 
under '' General Procedure." By disregarding any 
of these, he may lose the race, even though he should 
cross the finish Hne ahead of his competitors. 

For convenience, fouls are repeated here. 

FOULS. — (a) To run without wearing a number 
unless with the consent of the Referee. 

(b) To make a false start ; i.e., to allow any part of 
the body to touch the ground beyond the starting 
hne before the signal for starting be given. The 
player is placed back for the first two such false 
starts as explained under '' Start.'' 



524 Distance Races 

(c) To be coached or assisted in any way during the 
race. 

(d) To hinder or impede another competitor in any 
way. 

(e) To grasp the tape at finish with the hands. 

(/) To dispute the decision of the officials or be 
guilty of any unfair or ungentlemanly conduct before, 
during, or after the race. 

(g) To cross to inside of track less than 6 feet 
in advance of nearest competitor. {Intercollegiate 
Athletic Association, 2 paces) 

(h) To cross in front of a competitor under any 
circumstances, after making last turn before finish. 

A runner guilty of fouls is disqualified, i.e., loses 
the race, even though he should come in first at the 
finish. 

If a runner has been hindered by the fouls of a com- 
petitor, he may at once make verbal protest to the 
Referee, and at the discretion of the latter may be 
allowed to run again. 

SPEED : RECORDS. — As explained under 
^^ Form," the pace changes during different parts of 
the middle-distance and distance runs, but the average 
shows a standard time for a quarter-mile run (440 
yards) to be 50 seconds ; for the half mile (880 yards) 
a trifie less than 2 minutes ; and for the one-mile 
run four and a half minutes. 

The following amateur records are given to form a 
basis of comparison for competitors of various ages. 
The Table does not attempt to present the -latest 
records. 



speed: Records 525 

HIGH SCHOOLS (P.S.A.L., N.Y.) : 

440 yd 53f s. 

880 yd 2 m. 5 s. 

I mile 4 m. 46f s. 

INTERSCHOLASTIC : 

440 yd 48t s. 

880 yd " I m. 55 s. 

I mile 4 m. 26f s.- 

INTERCOLLEGIATE : 

440 yd 48 s. 

880 yd I m. 53t s. 

I mile •..4m. 14! s. 

ADULTS (A.A.U. Seniors): 

440 yd. straightaway, outdoor ...... 47 s. 

440 yd. straightaway, indoor 49! s. 

880 yd. outdoor i m. 52J s. 

880 yd. indoor i m. 54! s. 

I mile, outdoor 4 m. 14! s. 

I mile, indoor 4 m. 18J s. 

OLYMPIC RECORDS: 

800 meters (824 yds. 32 in.) im. 51.9 s. 

5000 meters (3 miles) 14 m. 36f's. 



RELAY RACES 

DESCRIPTION. — A relay race is one in which the 
competitors are teams instead of individuals. There 
are different forms of relay races : (i) The track 
race here described, in which each player on a team 
runs but part of the distance to be covered and is 
then relieved by another player on his team, these 
various runners being stationed at different points 
on the track to take up their share of the running in 
turn ; and (2) the forms of the little games known as 
'' Single Relay Race " and " Shuttle Relay Race " 1 
in which the players on a team stand in files and each 
player runs a certain distance and back again to the 
group (single relay) or between two groups of his own 
team (Shuttle or Double relay) before the next runner 
takes up the game. ' 

The track race here described is the form used in 
adult athletic contests. The distance is divided 
between several runners, usually four, though the 
number is not invariable. Each of these runs a part of 
the distance, and touches the hand of the next runner 
on his team, who stands waiting for him, or hands 
him a baton. This touch-off is the signal for the next 
player to run. A distance of twenty feet is allowed 
for this touching of hands, or passing of the baton, 

1 See " Games for the Playground, Home, School and Gymnasium," 
by Jessie H. Bancroft. The Macmillan Co., Pub. 

526 



528 Relay Races 

and a team is disqualified (loses) if one of its players 
starts over the twenty-foot line without the touch-off 
or baton. 

DISTANCES AND TEAMS. — The total distances 
covered in relay races vary from 300 yards to 4 miles. 
As this distance is divided between about four players, 
each is able to run at a much higher speed than he 
could maintain were he to run the distance alone. 
For most relay races, each runner covers only a sprint- 
ing distance and the race is therefore run throughout 
at maximum speed. Records show that a given 
distance is covered in less time by relay teams than 
by single runners. 

The number of players on relay teams vary from 
three to seven, or more. Teams of four, however, 
are customary, each running one quarter of the 
distance. 

The length of relay races for players of different 
ages, and the number of players on teams, are shown 
in the table of records given at the end of this section 
on ^' Relay Races.'' 

THE COURSE. — Relay races are usually run on 
regular running tracks, whether indoors or out of 
doors. The scratch, or starting line, is drawn on the 
ground across the track as for all other races. A 
similar starting line is drawn for each runner on the 
team, and these four lines are nearly always at equal 
distances ; thus, for a race a mile long, to be run by a 
four-man team, over a track measuring (for the sake 
of illustration) one mile in length, there would be 
drawn four starting lines, dividing the course into 
four equal parts of 440 yards each. The measurement 



Arrangement of Teams 529 

of these distances, to be ofl&cial, must be made eighteen 
inches outward from the inner edge of the track. 
Twenty feet on the farther side of each such starting 
line, another Hne is drawn parallel to it. Within this 
twenty-foot zone each runner must touch the succeed- 
ing runner or hand him a baton. The finish Une is a 
line drawn on the ground at right angles to the edges 
of the track, similar to the starting Hne. 

ARRANGEMENT OF TEAMS. — As stated 
above, the number of runners on a relay team is not 
invariable. The usual number is four. 

This number is specified by the PubKc Schools Athletic 
League of New York and the Young Men's Christian Associa- 
tion among the events for their championship meets, but not 
by the other associations quoted herein. 

All of the members of a team should be marked in 
some uniform way to distinguish them from other 
teams, and thus make sure of a correct touch-off. 
This also assists the judges. A distinguishing color in 
the costume, or sashes of uniform color worn diago- 
nally across the breast, are best for this purpose. 

No member of a relay team may run but once in a 
given heat ; that is, when he has finished his distance 
he must drop out. Should his team come in first or 
second, however, in the race, he would run with them 
in further trial heats, or in the finals, as the case might 
be. No runner may run in the final heat of a race 
who has not participated in the trial heats, and this 
with a team that came in first (or second, etc.) in the 
trials. The make-up (personnel) of the teams may 
not be changed after the first entry. That is, if an 



530 Relay Races 

organization enters two teams for relay races, it may 
not exchange the players on them after the first 
heats; the same runners must play together in all 
heats and in the finals. 

The Public Schools Athletic League allows the names of 
substitutes to be entered with each team when formal entry 
is made for any particular meet ; this is done in regular form 
on entry blanks. These substitutes may take the place of any 
member of a team for the first trial heat, and must hold such 
place for successive heats and finals. But this organization 
does not allow a substitute to be put in after the first trial heat ; 
if any member of a team drops out after this, the entire team 
must drop out ; no substitute may then be put in. 

Teams generally decide in advance v^hich of their 
runners shall run the first distance or relay, which 
the second, etc. If they do not so decide, their order 
is assigned by the Clerk of the Course, either when 
they report to him, or when the race is called. It is 
usual to run the fastest man last on the relay and the 
next in speed first, reserving the intermediate posi- 
tions for the slower runners. 

The teams in a relay race draw for their positions ; 
i.e,y as to whether they shall be next the inner edge of 
the track (the '^ pole ")? second, or third from it, etc. 
Each of the runners on a team must take- this same 
relative position on his starting line; i.e.^ if a team 
draws third place, its first runner must take his place 
for starting third from the inner edge of the track, 
and each succeeding member of his team must stand 
third from the inner edge of his starting line. There 
may be crossing, in front of other runners toward the 
inner edge of the track as in some other races (See 



start 531 

Distance and Middle-distance Races), hut the touch- 
of must he in the assigned position. 

HANDICAPPING. — In a handicap race the allowance 
given by a team^ i.e., the distance which its opponent 
is handicapped, is all given to the first runner; 
that is, he is placed that distance in front of the 
scratch or starting line. The first runner of the team 
that receives no handicap is placed on the scratch. 
He is called sometimes, scratch man. It is a 
foul, for which the team is disqualified, if a handi- 
capped runner tries to advance before the signal for 
starting. 

The distance a team is handicapped is determined 
before the games by an official handicapper, and the 
starting line is designated by the Clerk of the Course 
in accordance with this. 

START. — Shortly before it is time for a relay race 
to begin on a program, all the members of the 
teams should report to the Clerk of the Course and 
then take their places on their various starting Hnes. 
If the race is a long one, or the track very short, so 
that more than one lap has to be run, the successive 
relays may not be able to line up at once, but should 
wait near their respective starting hnes until the last 
runner has passed on his last round, and then take 
their places. They are usually summoned to this 
by the Clerk of the Course or one of the Inspectors. 

The first runners in a relay race start on formal 
signals as for other races ; the successive runners of a 
team start from their respective places each when 
he receives the " touch-off '' or baton from the in- 
coming runner. 



532 Relay Races 

The form of the start is exactly like that for a quarter 
mile, half mile, or mile race ; that is, a crouching or 
standing start, depending upon the distance that each 
relay runner is expected to cover. 

THE RAGE. — The form used is exactly the same 
as that used for running a quarter, half, or mile, as 
explained for Middle-distance races, depending, of 
course, upon the distance that each runner has to 
traverse. 

The runner must be careful not to run too fast 
within the first two or three hundred yards, but must 
conserve his strength for the finish; in other words, 
be a good judge of pace. 

TOUCH-OFF : BATON. — The touch-off consists in a 
touching of the hand of each relay by the incoming 
runner ; or a baton may be handed from one* to the 
other (required under Intercollegiate and Olympic 
rules). The baton must be a hollow tube of wood, 
1 1. 8 1 inches long (300 millimeters) and weigh not less 
than 1.769 ounces (50 grams). Its circumference is re- 
quired to be 4.724 inches (120 millimeters). 

In the touch-off the hands must actually touch. 
To overlap the hands without touching or to make an 
attempt to touch and fail count as failures, disquali- 
fying the team. If the baton is dropped, the team is 
disqualified, unless the runner stops and recovers it. 

A distance of 20 feet is allowed in which to accom- 
plish this touch-off, a fine being drawn on the ground 
20 feet in advance of the starting line to make clear the 
limit. To touch-off outside these limits is a foul. 
The waiting relay may toe his fine toward the rear if 
he wishes, reaching back to the incoming relay, but 



Heats 533 

he may not step back of this line to meet him. The 
two runners may run together throughout the twenty- 
foot distance, but the touching of hands must take 
place before the outgoing runner crosses the twenty- 
foot Hne. 

Repeatedly team-mates should practice the " touch- 
off/' so that no time will be lost and so that the man 
waiting will be well under way within the twenty-foot 
zone, when his team-mate dashes up to touch him or 
to hand him the baton. 

THE FINISH. — The team wins (if it has no fouls 
against it) whose last runner (relay) is first to cross the 
finish Hne. 

HEATS. — As in other races, relay races may be 
run in heats. This is done for younger boys (of 
elementary school age) , but not in the Amateur Ath- 
letic Union or Intercollegiate Association. The con- 
testing teams run a trial heat, the teams coming in 
first and second (sometimes third, fourth, etc., are 
also allowed) then run off to determine the final winner. 
There are sometimes semi-finals and finals, in which 
case each team running in a final race would be running 
for its third time. No team or member of a team may 
run in the finals who has not run in each of the trial 
heats. 

When there are more contestants than the track will 
accommodate for one heat, any of the heats (except 
the finals) may be run in several heats. No two teams 
from the same school or organization may run in the 
same heat. The heats are arranged by the Clerk of 
the Course. 

Should a team be hindered or impeded by the foul of 



534 Relay Races 

a competitor, the Referee has power to allow it to 
run in the next heat, just as though it had won such a 
privilege in the previous heat. This is at the discre- 
tion of the Referee, not mandatory. 

RULES : FOULS. — Throughout a race a runner 
must observe carefully all the regulations given for 
Running Races under ^^ General Procedure.'' By dis- 
regarding any of these a runner may lose the race 
for his team even though he should cross the finish line 
ahead of his competitors. 

A runner should bear in mind the following special 
regulations for Relay Races : 

(i) A runner may not cross in front of a competitor, ^s in 
some other races. 

(2) No one runner may run two relays in any heat. 

(3) Only those are allowed to run in final heats who have 
competed in trial heats. 

(4) The make-up of teams may not be changed after the 
race begins. 

(5) A team is disqualified if any one of its members fails to 
run his full relay. 

(6) An outgoing runner may not cross the twenty-foot line 
without the touch-off or baton. 

(7) An outgoing runner may not run back over his starting 
line to meet or relieve an incoming runner. 

In addition to these special regulations for relays, 
a runner should observe carefully the following fouls 
that apply to all running races. 



(8) For the first runner to start over the line before the 
signal. 

(9) For a handicapped runner to try to advance his starting 

line. 






Officials 535 

(lo) For a runner to try to push toward the inside on the 
starting line, or in any way to try to change positions, after his 
team has drawn its position. 

(ii) To run without wearing a number unless with the con- 
sent of the Referee. 

(12) To make a false start; i.e., to allow any part of the 
body to touch the ground beyond the starting line before the 
signal for starting be given. 

(13) To be coached or assisted in any way during the race. 

(14) To hinder or impede another competitor in any way. 

(15) To cross into another lane. 

(16) To grasp the tape at finish with the hands or arms. 

(17) To dispute the decision of the officials or be guilty 
of any unfair or ungentlemanly conduct before, during, or after 
the race. 

A runner guilty of fouls is disqualified; that is, 
his team loses the race, even though he or a team- 
mate should come in first at the finish. 

If a runner has been hindered by the fouls of a com- 
petitor, he may at once make verbal protest to the 
Referee, and at the discretion of the latter his team 
may be allowed to run again. 

OFFICIALS. — These are the same as for races in 
general, as described under '' General Procedure/' 
but the following regulations apply to relay races : 
The Referee assigns an Inspector to each divi- 
sion or zone of the track within which the touch-off 
is made. The duty of such Inspector is to note and 
report to the Referee, any pair or pairs of competitors, 
who have either failed to touch-off, or pass the baton, 
who have done this outside of the twenty-foot zone, 
or who have otherwise transgressed the rules. The 
team whose member or members have transgressed 
are then disqualified by the Referee. 



536 



Relay Races 



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speed: Records 537 

SPEED : RECORDS. — The preceding table gives 
the distances and number of runners to a team, cus- 
tomary for competitors of different ages, or officially 
provided for in the organizations mentioned. 

The object of this table is to furnish a standard of 
comparison, and not to give the latest records. 



HURDLE RACES 

DESCRIPTION. — A hurdle race is a combina- 
tion of running and jumping. It is a running race in 
which the contestants jump over hurdles ■ — which are 
obstacles generally of the nature of a gate or section 
of fence. In America these hurdles are made to 
swing or turn over easily so that they give if hit, and 
a jumper is not tripped by hitting one in his race. In 
England the hurdles are fastened securely. The swing- 
ing hurdles cost $3.50 each or $100 for a set of 
forty. 

DISTANCES AND HURDLES. — Hurdle races 
are run over a total distance of from 40 yards to 440 
yards, with the number of hurdles varying from 3 for 
the shorter distance mentioned to 20 for the longer 
one. 

The standard distances for hurdle races are 120 
yards, with 10 high hurdles (3 feet 6 inches in height) 
and 220 yards with 10 low hurdles (each 2 feet 6 
inches high). These are distances provided for in 
the official programs for championship meets of the 
Amateur Athletic Union, Young Men's Christian 
Association, Intercollegiate Association, and the out- 
door games of the high schools in the PubHc Schools 
Athletic League of New York City. The indoor high 
school games are 100 yards with 8 hurdles, each 3 feet 
6 inches high. There are no hurdle races officially 

538 



The Race 541 

THE RACE. — Each contestant must be assigned 
his own lane, as in sprint races, and his own hurdles. 

A crouching start, such as that described for sprints, 
is used. 

Throughout a hurdle race a runner must observe 
all of the regulations explained for Running Races 
under ^^ General Procedure.'' By disregarding any 
of these he may lose the race, even though he should 
cross the finish line ahead of his competitors. 

In particular, he must not make a false start (ahead 
of the signal), must not cross into another lane, or 
in any way impede another runner. 

A hurdler may win a race, and yet overturn two 
hurdles in his flight, but for overturning a third hurdle 
he is disqualified. 

To make a record, however, a runner must finish 
without having overturned any hurdle; in other 
words, hurdles must all be standing in place, and un- 
disturbed, when he finishes his race. 

It is not permissible to trail a leg or foot along the 
end of a hurdle ; both feet must clear the top or the 
player is disqualified. 

FINISH. — The finish of a hurdle race is the same 
as for all races as described under '' General Procedure.'' 

FORM. — Hurdle racing is essentially a combina- 
tion of sprinting and high jumping. Speed should 
be got up at once, and the distance to the first hurdle 
in the 120 yards hurdle race should be cleared in seven 
strides. When taking the hurdles, the athlete must 
not jump too high, or begin his jump, or end it, too 
far away from the hurdle, as there should be no wasted 
effort. The hurdler should always have his body 



542 



Hurdle Races 



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544 Hurdle Races 

well balanced and under perfect control. If he takes 
off from his left foot before going over the hurdle, the 
right foot should be brought forward and upward and 
the arms stretched sidewise. When the right leg is 
about to reach the ground, the left leg should be 
brought over with sufficient force to add impetus to 
the body; for the longer the body is poised in the 
air, the greater the loss of time. 

The final sprint to the tape should be performed 
as is the final sprint in any dash. (See Finish of 
Sprint.) 



CROSS-COUNTRY RUN 

EXPLANATION. — This is a running race, pre- 
sumably without rest, over the open country. It 
may be along roadways or across fields and streams 
and through woods. It is usually taken over a well- 
marked trail. 

DISTANCES. — The length of the run varies from 
three miles for boys of high school age, to ten miles 
for adults. The official Intercollegiate distance is six 
miles. The cross-country run should not be under- 
taken without previous training, as it is a test of 
endurance, especially for the heart and lungs. 

SCORE. — The competition may be individual 
or between teams. All of the runners of all teams 
start at once. 

The first runner to return to the starting point 
scores i point ; the second runner to return scores 2 
points, the third 3 points, and so on. In a race 
between individuals, the one finishing first wins. If 
the runners are in competing teams, each team scores 
the total number of points made by the first five of 
its members to finish. The team wins (Intercollegiate 
rules) which scores the fewest number of points. 
Second place is determined by the combined score 
of the second five runners of any team which totals 
the fewest number of points. In some races the com- 
bined score of all members of the team determines the 
final standing of the team. 

2N 545 



Walking 547 

CROSS COUNTRY RECORDS. — 

(For comparison only : not given as the latest records.) 
HIGH SCHOOLS 2^ miles 13 min. 54 sec. 

INTERCOLLEGIATE 6 miles 32 min. 29 J sec. 



WALKING 



As an athletic track event, walking is a competition 
for speed. As a form of non-competitive athletic 
exercise it is taken for length only, in distances limited 
for different ages. 

AS A COMPETITIVE TRACK EVENT. — 

THE COURSE is a turf or cinder track ; the usual 
length from ^ to 2 miles. 

THE START. — This is a standing start, made on 
a pistol or other signal. The contestants toe the 
scratch line, or, in case of handicap, a line back of the 
scratch line designated by the Clerk of the Course. 
The toe may be on the line, but not over it. 

THE WALK. — The distinction between a walk 
and a run is that in tlie walk both feet are never off 
the ground at once ; or, stated conversely, one foot 
is always on the ground. The Judge of Walking and 
his assistants judge of this. A competitor breaking 
this rule is warned twice. He is disqualified (taken 
out of the race) for a third ofTense anywhere through- 
out, the course, and is at once disqualified within 
the last 220 yards of a race, whether it be a first, 
second, or third ofTense. 



548 Walking 

FORM. — One foot must be always on the ground, 
and because of this rule, the action is called heel-and- 
toe walking. The leg on the ground should always be 
straight, when the other leg is about to stride forward. 
The hips should move with the leg and the arms be 
kept bent and swung across the chest. The right 
arm should come forward when the left foot is being 
carried forward. The shoulders should remain at 
right angles to the direction in which the walker is 
going. He should not come down too heavily on the 
heels. 

THE FINISH. — This is the same as in running 
races. The competitor wins who first crosses the line. 
His entire body must be over the line. While it is 
crossing with the feet that determines the race, it is 
customary to stretch a strand of worsted above the 
scratch line, for the winning competitor to ^' breast 
the tape." 

FOULS. — (i) To start ahead of the signal. For 
this the walker is set back one yard for the first offense, 
another yard for the second, and disqualified for the 
third. 

(2) To put any part of the foot beyond the line 
before the signal. This is called a false start and is 
penalized like the above. 

(3) While walking, to have both feet off the ground 
at once. Penalty, disqualification for third offense, 
anywhere throughout the course, or for any offense 
within the last 220 yards. 

(4) To impede another competitor in any way, as 
by throwing the arms side wise, or crossing in front 
of him at less than six yards distance, is a foul and 
disqualifies the walker. 



Non- Competitive Walking 549 

OFFICIALS. — The Judge of Walking is the official 
who decides whether a competitor is walking fairly or 
not, i.e., whether or not the competitor is running. 
His decision is final. He may have assistants, if 
desired, to inspect the course, report fouls to him, or 
assist at start or finish. Like all other officials at a 
meet, he is under the general direction of the Referee. 

RECORDS. — It is not intended to give here the 
latest records, but to furnish contestants and coaches 
with a standard of comparison. 

AMERICAN AMATEUR RECORDS (ADULTS) 

J mile 3 min. 2f sec. 

I mile, outdoor 6 min. 29! sec. 

1 mile, indoor 6 min. 28 sec. 

2 miles, outdoor 13 min. 48! sec. 

2 miles, indoor 13 min. 38! sec. 



WALKING AS NON-COMPETITIVE ATH- 
LETIC EXERCISE. — For elementary school girls, 
the Girls' Branch of the Public Schools Athletic League, 
of New York City, requires, in its Ail-Round Athlet- 
ics, from five to eight walks during the school year. 
(More are permissible.) Below the fifth school year 
(girls up to and including ten years of age) walks are 
limited to two miles each. From the fifth to eighth 
school years (eleven to fourteen years of age) walks 
must be at least two miles in length and not more 
than five miles. In high schools (fifteen to eighteen 
years of age inclusive) the minimum distance is three 
miles and the maximum ten. 



550 Walking 

No attempt at fast time or long distances is allowed. 

Teachers are required to accompany clubs or classes. 

In this non-competitive plan, awards are made at 
the end of the season for having taken a certain amount 
of exercise of varied character, and not for walking 
records or ^' beating " some other club. Each girl 
completing the work receives a pin from the Girls' 
Branch at the end of the season, the design of the pin 
for successive years being added to until a full-rayed 
star indicates the entire school course in athletics. 

Walks are rendered especially interesting by corre- 
lating with local history, nature and geography study, 
or by visiting points of other special interest. 

A local newspaper has encouraged further walking 
by offering a medal for an aggregate of 25 miles walked 
in several tours in any school quarter (two months), 
a bar of different metal being added for similar achieve- 
ment in subsequent quarters. Tours are limited in 
length to a minimum of two miles and a maximum of 
five. 



JUMPING AND POLE VAULTING 





WORLD'S RECORDS BEING BROKEN IN POLE VAULT, SHOT PUT, 
SPRINT-RACE AND RUNNING HIGH JUMP 



(552) 



Photogravh hy Underwood and Underwood 



RUNNING BROAD JUMP 

THE FIELD. — The running broad jump requires 
a long runway, a take-off board, and a jumping pit. 

The runway should be either firm soil or a cinder 
track, not necessarily wider than 2 or 3 feet, and at 
least 30 to 40 yards in length. The take-off is a 
joist, 5 inches wide at the top {Public Schools Athletic 
League Rules, 8 inches), the whole joist sunk, until 
the top is on a level with the runway. 

On the farther side of the joist (take-off) from the 
runway, the ground is dug out for a depth of 3 inches 
and a width of 12 inches. Beyond this it is often dug 
up loosely for a depth of from 6 inches to i foot, in a 
strip about 5 feet wide and 25 or 30 long. 

ORDER OF JUMPING. — Each competitor has 
three trials. A jumper is not compelled to take his 
three jumps one after the other. It is customary 
for all the competitors to jump one after another 
until each has had a turn. This procedure is gone 
through thrice. 

In a scratch competition (no handicap) , competitors 
usually jump in the order in which their names appear 
on the program ; or they may toss a coin to determine 
order of jumping. In handicap contests, competitors 
jump in the order of greatest handicap ; that is, the one 
who has the least handicap accorded him jumps last. 

PRELIMINARY. — Each competitor should de- 
termine, before the time for the contest is called, just 

553 



554 Running Broad Jump 

where he should start his run, in order to reach the 
take-ofif on an even stride. It is customary to mark 
the track in some way where his right foot should 
start, and again where it should strike somewhere 
through the course. These places he should deter- 
mine by pacing off the course from the take-off to the 
starting point. The mark is often a small piece of 
paper pinned beside the track with a twig. One who 
jumps from the left foot should place these marks 
for that foot instead of the right. 

There is no rule limiting the distance of the run, but 
about six paces is customary. 

Any preliminary practice for ^^ warming up '' should 
be done before the event is called, and not when the 
competitor begins his trial jumps. 

When a competitor is certain that he can sprint to 
the take-off and strike it with the proper foot, and not 
overrun it, he is prepared for his turn. 

THE JUMP. — This is made as a finish to the run. 
The spring is made from one foot from the forward 
edge of the take-off. For the foot to touch the ground 
in front of the take-off as the jump is made is a foul. 
The landing is made on both feet, and on the whole 
foot — not on the toes as in high jumping. This is 
because the jump is measured to the first mark of the 
heel. The jumper must have good balance in landing, 
as, if he falls backward, or touches his hand or body 
to the ground back of his heels, the jump is measured 
to the nearest mark. 

FORM. — When the Field Judge in charge of this 
event calls his name, the competitor should have al- 
ready limbered up his muscles by a few short sprints 



Fouls 555 

and short jumps. Without any hurry, he should 
step to his second (farther) marker and run to the 
take-off. There should be perfect control of the body 
while taking the run from the second to the first marker ; 
then, with the highest speed possible, the jumper 
should dash to the take-off. Just before the last 
stride he should crouch and come down hard on the 
take-off. As he feels his foot strike in this last step, 
he should throw his whole weight forward to the ball 
of the foot. 

He should spring from the ball of the foot, high 
in the air, drawing the legs upward and throwing the 
arms forward and upward, in order to Kft the body. 

As he feels himself coming down, the jumper should 
thrust the feet forward and the arms downward and 
forward, being certain, if possible, to la.nd on the feet, 
without faUing forward. 

If the ground is soft, or the competitor runs against 
the wind, he should shorten the preliminary run. If 
the ground is hard, or the wind with the competitor, 
he should lengthen the run. 

The competitor should look where he expects to 
land, and not at the take-off. 

There should be spikes in the heels of the shoes 
as well as on the sole, and thick felt should underlie 
the athlete's heel or else it is likely to be bruised. 

FOULS. — It is a foul for the foot to touch the 
ground on the farther side of the take-off. Such a 
jump does not score, but counts as one of the jumper's 
three trials. 

It is a foul to run over the scratch line without jump- 
ing. This counts as a trial jump, but does not score. 



556 Running Broad Jump 

SCORE. — All three trials are recorded for each 
competitor. The longest of the three jumps made 
by any competitor is his record in the event, whether 
that be his first, second, or third jump. 

Where there are more than four competitors, each 
competitor is first allowed three trials, and those three' 
competitors (or four, depending on the number of 
prizes or manner of counting points) who have made 
the longest jumps are entitled to enter the finals. He 
who makes the longest jump, either at the time of his 
three final jumps or in the preliminary jumps, is the 
winner, if the event is a scratch event, that is, one in 
which no handicaps were conceded. If handicaps 
were conceded, those whose jumps, plus the handi- 
caps, were the longest are the winners in that respec- 
tive order. 

OFFICIALS. — Field Judges of the broad jump, 
under the direction of the Referee, officiate and run off 
this event. They measure the length of jumps and 
their judgment is final. They keep full records of each 
trial unless an official Scorer be assigned to that duty. 

The jump should be measured from the outer edge 
of the take-off to the nearest break in the ground. 
If the competitor falls backward after the jump, the 
mark made nearest the take-off by any portion of his 
body determines the length of the jump. 

OUTFIT. — Take-off boards cost $3. 

RECORDS. — 

Note. — The object of these figures is not to give an up-to- 
date record, but to afford a standard of comparison for the 
achievement of athletes of different ages. 



Standing Broad Jump 557 

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS RECORDS, RUNNING BROAD 
JUMP. (Public Schools Athletic League, N.Y.) 





80-lb. 


class, 


17 ft. 






85- 


-lb. 


class, 


16 ft. 


7 in. 




95- 


-lb. 


class. 


16 ft. 


II 2 ii^ 




lOO- 


-lb. 


class. 


16 ft. 


II in. 


HIGH SCHOOLS 








21 ft. 


2I in. 


INTERSCHOLASTIC 








23 ft. 


7iin. 


INTERCOLLEGIATE, MEN 








24 ft. 


7iin. 


WOMEN'S COLLEGES 








15 ft. 


3 in. 


ADULTS (A.A.U. SENIOR) 








23 ft. 


II in. 



STANDING BROAD JUMP 

FIELD. — On ofl&cial fields, a joist, called the take- 
off, five inches in width, is sunk level with the earth. 
In front of the outer edge of this joist (which edge is 
called the scratch line) the ground is dug away to a 
depth of 3 inches over a strip 12 inches wide. This is 
to give a good take-off and prevent the jumper's toes 
from marking the ground in front of the line, which is 
a foul. Back of the joist the earth must be exactly 
level with its upper surface. 

THE JUMP. — The jump is made from both feet. 
When made from a regular take-off, as described 
above, the toes may overlap the edge, so as to get a 
pressure against the joist. When made from a mark 
on the ground, the toes may be on the line but not 
over it. 

The competitor may place his feet in any position, 
and rock back and forth from heels to toes preliminary 



558 Standing Broad Jump 

to jumping; but he may not take any preliminary 
spring or jump, or allow one foot or both to leave the 
ground before the final jump, or slide one foot along 
the ground in any direction. 

He may not step over the take-off or scratch line, 
or allow the foot to make any mark on the ground in 
front of it. 

Preparatory to jumping it is customary to bend 
the knees, throwing both arms upward and backward, 
then downward and backward, to get the help of 
their momentum, jumping as they again swing for- 
ward from the downward position. 

The landing should be on the entire foot, as it is 
the mark of the heel that determines the length of the 
jump, unless the jumper falls backward, or touches 
the ground behind him with his hands ; in that case, 
the mark nearest the take-off determines the length 
of the jump. 

FOULS. — (i) To let the toes protrude over the 
scratch line at the start. The jumper may stand on 
the joist, but not over its front edge. 

(2) To scratch the earth in front of the take-off 
with the foot. 

(3) To take a preparatory jump. 

PENALTY. — For any of the above fouls a jump 
does not score, but counts as one of the three trials. 

SCORE. — The jump is measured from the scratch 
line (front edge of the take-off) to the first break in the 
ground. The tape should lie flat (be held taut) and 
not follow inequalities in the ground. 

Each contestant is allowed three trials, his farthest 
jump being the one to score. The three competitors 



Officials 559 

who jump the farthest have each three more trials. 
The entire competition is won by the best jump, 
irrespective of in which trial it occurred. 

In case of a tie, each of the competitors who are tied 
shall be allowed three additional trials, the award 
going to the one jumping the farthest in these addi- 
tional trials. In case of a second or succeeding ties, 
this same procedure is repeated. 

OFFICIALS. — A Field Judge assigned to the 
broad jump has entire charge of this event and is the 
sole judge of distances. There is no appeal from his 
decisions. He should call competitors to their trials 
in the order in which their names appear on the pro- 
gram. It is a rule to allow each competitor one jump, 
and a rest, while the others are jumping, taking his 
second jump when the list has been gone through 
once, and his third when his name is reached a third 
time. 

A Field Judge may have assistants. In that case 
he takes entire charge of them and assigns them to 
whatever duty he wishes. He or his assistants 
should keep a complete score of all trials, unless an 
official Scorer be assigned to this. 

A Judge should remember that any dispute or 
argument by competitors is contrary to rule. A 
case of this kind should be immediately rebuked, and 
if repeated or flagrant, should be reported to the 
Referee, who is in sole authority as to the conduct of 
competitors and may exclude one for unseemly con- 
duct. 

OUTFIT. — A take-off board costs $3. 



560 Three Standing Broad Jumps 

RECORDS, STANDING BROAD JUMP. — 

Note. — The purpose of these figures is not to give an 
up-to-date record, but to afford coaches a standard of judging 
attainment in competitors of different ages. 

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 

80-lb. class, 8 ft. 1 1 in. 

85-lb. class, 8 ft. 4 in. 

WOMEN'S COLLEGES 7 ft. gj in. 

ADULT (A.A.U.) 10 ft. 9 in. 



THREE STANDING BROAD JUMPS 

EXPLANATION. — This event is exactly like 
the standing broad jump, except that instead of stop- 
ping when he lands, the contestant jumps immediately, 
makes a second, and then a third jump. He may not 
stop between jumps, even for any of the preparatory 
movements made for a first jump. 

MEASUREMENT. — The measurement is made 
from the outer edge of the take-off, or scratch line, to 
the heel mark of the last jump — unless any other 
part of the body touch the ground nearer the take-off, 
when that nearest mark is considered the length of 
the jump. 

RULES. — All rules, fouls, and officials are the same 
for this event as for the standing broad jump. 

RECORD. — (Example only.) 

AMATEUR ATHLETIC UNION (ADULT) 48 ft. 2f in. 
WOMEN'S COLLEGES 21 ft. loj in. 



RUNNING HOP, STEP, AND JUMP 

EXPLANATION. — This event is exactly like the 
running broad jump except that the first leap is a hop, 
and this is followed, without stopping, with a step, 
and then with a jump. 

All rules, officials, fouls, and procedure are the same 
as for the running broad jump. 

The landing from the first spring is made on the 
foot that made the take-off ; this is the hop. The 
second landing is made with the opposite foot ; this is 
the step ; it may be made as long as possible, pro- 
pelled by the foot that remains on the ground. The 
spring for the third and final effort (the jump) is made 
from the one foot then on the ground, but the landing 
is made with both feet. There must be no stop be-, 
tween any of the three efforts. 

MEASUREMENT. — The measurement is made 
from the forward edge (scratch Hne) of the take-off 
to the final mark of the heels ; or, should the jumper 
have fallen backward, the mark nearest the tape, 
made by any part of his body, is the length of the 
jump. 

RECORDS. — (Example only.) 

AMATEUR ATHLETIC UNION (SENIOR) 50 ft. 
WOMEN'S COLLEGES 31 ft. i in. 

20 561 



RUNNING HIGH JUMP 

THE FIELD. — For the high jump there should be 
a runway, at least 20 yards long, approaching the 
bar ; a pair of uprights for the bar, 6 feet apart ; and 
on the farther side of the poles (opposite to the run- 
way) a pit 6 feet square. By pit is meant an area 
in which the earth is dug up (softened, not removed) 
to a depth of from 6 to 1 2 inches. The pit is to guard 
against a contestant's injuring himself in landing. 

The runway should be roughly fan-shaped, with 
the narrower end at the posts; in other words, it 
should be 6 feet wide at the posts, and then widen 
out as it leaves them, so that a jumper could approach 
the uprights from either the right or left side. The 
turf on the runway should be well packed. 

The uprights should be perforated from about 3 
feet above the ground to a height of 6 feet 6 inches 
above the ground, with little round holes, into which 
pegs may be inserted. These pegs must not project 
more than 3 inches. Upon these pegs is hung a light, 
thin cross bar. In a jump, the knocking down of the 
cross bar constitutes a failure. 

Balk line. — Intercollegiate rules (only) call for the 
marking of a line on the ground 3 feet in front of the 
bar, and parallel with it. Running over this in any 
attempt is called a balk, whether the contestant jump 
or not. In other words, he must spring from at least 

562 



Preliminaries 563 

3 feet in front of the bar. Under other rules, running 
under the bar is a balk. 

A handkerchief or other white cloth is often hung 
on the center of the bar to assist the eye in locating it. 

ORDER OF JUMPING. — Contestants are called 
to jump in the order in which their names appear on 
the program. 

In handicap events the first to jump is the competi- 
tor having the greatest allowance {i.e., the one who is 
allowed the privilege of starting at the lowest height). 
The last to jump is the one having the least allowance, 
or none ; that is, the one who starts at scratch. 

Each competitor is given three trials at each height 
of the bar. These three trials are not taken in im- 
mediate succession. The first contestant jumps 
once, and, if he does not clear the bar, rests until the 
others have each had one jump ; he then makes his 
second jump, and, if he fails again, waits until his 
name is reached on the Hst a third time. 

If a jumper fails on either or both of his first two 
trials, but clears the bar on the third, he is considered 
successful at that height. If he succeeds on first or 
second trials, he does not jump again at that height. 

A contestant may refuse to jump at any height 
before he has made a first trial at that height; but 
having made a first trial and failed, he must jump a 
second time, and, if he fails, a third time. 

A competitor may omit any height and try at, later, 
a greater height ; but should he fail at the latter, he 
may not then try the lower height which was omitted. 

PRELIMINARIES. — As in broad jumping, the 
competitor must have decided -during practice what 



564 Running High Jump 

distance he should run before attempting the jump. 
Before his turn comes, he must determine just where 
he should start his runs, in order that the foot from 
which he jumps will be in proper relation to the bar. 
This he does by stepping back a number of strides 
(usually seven or eight) and marking the spot (for 
example, by jamming a twig through a piece of paper 
and pinning it to the ground). Then, by striding 
over that distance several times, he should note 
whether, when he starts from the mark with his 
jumping foot, that same foot comes into the exact 
position for a high jump over the bar. Jumpers 
usually take off from the left foot from three to six 
feet from the bar. 

He should then go about ten yards farther back than 
the first mark to locate his actual starting point. 
By covering the distance several times he can deter- 
mine the position for the second mark. 

THE JUMP. — This is made from one foot, at the 
end of a short run. The length of this run is unlimited. 
The landing is on the same foot as the take-off. 
Any touching of the bar, in crossing it, or after land- 
ing, is considered a failure, whether or not the bar be 
displaced. 

The head and shoulders should not be over the bar 
before one foot is across ; otherwise the attempt is a 
dive and not a jump. 

To make an approach to the bar and run under it^ 
instead of jumping is called a balk. Three balks in 
succession are counted as one trial jump. ( Under 
Intercollegiate rules, to run beyond the balk line, three 
feet in front of the bar^ is a balk) 



Handicaps 565 

FORM. — The bar is usually approached from an 
oblique direction and the spring made with the jump- 
er's side to the bar. 

For the approach, the competitor should stand 
where he has made his mark as explained above, and 
run, not too quickly, to the mark nearest the bar, 
touching this mark with his left foot. From there, 
with long, high strides, he should reach the bar, with 
just enough speed to give the proper impetus to his 
body. From the fiat of the left foot, and with knees 
rather straight, he should take off about four or five 
feet from the cross bar, throw the right foot high 
and over, and the body up, giving a twist and jerk so as 
to bring the lower portion of the left buttock and 
the left leg over the bar. 

He should land upon the same leg from which he 
jumped, being certain to throw the body, when he feels 
himself dropping, far enough away from the cross bar 
to avoid touching it. 

SCORE. — In a scratch competition (one in which 
no handicaps are given), the man who clears the bar 
at the highest mark is declared champion. 

HANDICAPS. — When handicaps are given, they 
are added to the actual jump of the competitor, and 
the jumper whose total is highest wins the event. 
In a handicap competition, a jump to win must be 
greater than the height of the jump of any other com- 
petitor plus the handicap. 

A TIE in a scratch contest is decided by allowing each 
of the tied competitors three more trials at the height 
last tried; if neither clears the bar, this is lowered 
one point and each tries again. This lowering of the 



566 Running High Jump 

bar is continued until one of the competitors clears it 
and the other fails. Or, if they tie again at the same 
height, the award goes to the one who cleared the bar 
with the fewest number of trials. 

In a tie in a handicap contest, the competitor with 
the least, or no allowance, is given the award. 

OFFICIALS. — Two or three Field Judges are 
assigned to the high jump. They have complete 
control of the event and their decision is final. They 
call contestants to the bar, keep record of their trials, 
and determine who is the winner. They or their 
assistants fix the bar at different heights. 

The Field Judges should look over the field and 
equipment before the event is called, and be sure that 
everything is in readiness and according to specifica- 
tions. 

They should see that contestants do in advance of 
the hour any preliminary pacing or marking of the 
ground, or any needed practice. 

The Field Judges determine the height of the cross 
bar. It is usually placed at three feet at the begin- 
ning, and when any contestants are clearing it closely, 
is moved up but an inch at a time. 

Handicaps are decided by other officials before the 
meet, and a list of them given to the Field Judges 
before the event is called. 

In case a competitor is called for a track event or 
another field event, the Field Judge may allow him 
to go, but he must return promptly to take any trial 
so missed. For unnecessary delay in returning he may 
be considered as losing that trial. 

Any dispute or discussion with the Judges should 



Records 567 

be immediately checked, and, if flagrant or repeated, 
should be reported promptly to the Referee, who has 
authority to expel such offenders from the field. 

OUTFIT. — Portable jump stands for indoor meets 
may be had for $8 per pair; for outdoors, $15. 
On these a cord, weighted at the ends, is often stretched 
across the pins instead of a wooden bar. Running 
costume and a light pair of snugly fitting shoes are 
necessary. The shoes should have spikes in the 
heels as well as under the toes. 

RECORDS. — 

Note, — These figures are not intended to give an up-to- 
date record, but to furnish coaches with a standard of compari- 
son for athletes of different ages. These are outdoor records. 
Those for indoors are sHghtly less. 



ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS (Pul 


dHc Schools x\thletic League 


of New York) 








80-lb. 


class, 


4 ft. 


6 in. 


85-lb. 


class, 


4 ft. 


Sin. 


95-lb. 


class, 


4 ft. 


II J in. 


loo-lb. 


class, 


5 ft. 




115-lb. 


class. 


4 ft. 


9 in. 


Heavyweight class 


5, 5 ft. 2j in. 


HIGH SCHOOLS 




5 ft. 


9. in. 


INTERSCHOLASTIC 




6 ft. 


3f in. 


INTERCOLLEGIATE 




6 ft. 


4 in. 


WOMEN'S COLLEGES 




4 ft. 


9 in. 


ADULTS (A.A.U. SENIORS) 


6 ft. 


3 in. 



STANDING HIGH JUMP 

EXPLANATION. — This event is exactly like the 
running high jump, except that the jump itself is, 
in general form and rules, like that in the standing 
broad jump. 

The feet may be placed in any position, and the 
spring may be made from one or both feet.. No pre- 
liminary spring or jump may be made. The com- 
petitor may rock backward and forward to the toes, 
lifting toes and heels alternately, but the feet may not 
entirely leave the ground until the final spring. Such 
a preliminary jump is a foul and counts as one trial, 
but does not score. 

All rules, officials, points for scoring, handicapping, 
etc., are the same for this event as for the running 
high jump. 

RECORDS. — (Example only). 

ADULT (A.A.U. SENIOR) 5 ft. 2 in. 

WOMEN'S COLLEGES 4 ft. 



568 



THE POLE VAULT 

THE FIELD. — For the pole vault there should be 
provided a runway about 9 feet wide and about 20 
yards long, either covered with cinders and well rolled, 
or of firm, springy turf. At the end of the runway 
there should be two uprights, 10 feet apart. In these 
uprights there should be holes 2 inches apart below 
the 6-foot mark, i inch apart above that to the 9-foot 
mark, and ^ inch apart from there up to 12 feet 6 
inches. 

Between the two uprights a plank should be sunk fo 
the depth of at least 1 2 inches ; 2 inches of the plank 
should be above the level of the ground. On the 
farther side of the plank, a pit should be dug ; that is, 
the ground should be dug up to a depth of 1 2 inches and 
filled in with sawdust or soft earth. In front of the 
plank, i.e.^ on the near side, and at its center, should 
be dug a hole 5 inches deep, into which the vaulter 
may plunge his pole when about to jump. 

A line is drawn on the ground 1 5 feet in front of the 
bar and parallel with it. This is called the balk line. 
The vaulter must spring from before this Hne, for if 
he overruns it, even though he vault, it is called a 
balk. Two balks count as a try. 

Pegs, should be placed within the holes of the up- 
rights, and extend not more than 2 inches. Upon 
these pegs a cross bar i inch square and 1 1 feet long 

569 



570 The Pole Vault 

should be placed. There should be several such cross 
bars on the grounds, for they break very easily. 

It is well to mark one face of the cross bar and al- 
ways turn that face upward, as, through warping or 
sagging, it may make a difference in the height to be 
cleared. 

POLES are furnished by the club conducting the 
games, but it is within the rules, and very desirable, 
for each contestant to have his own pole. A contest- 
ant need not lend his pole to other contestants. Poles 
should be about i6 feet long, of bamboo or spruce, and 
tipped with an iron spike or wooden plug. There are 
no official rules for size or weight. Where the grip 
comes, the pole should be wound with tape or have 
a rubber cover so that the hands will not slip. No 
assisting devices are allowed on a pole except this cov- 
ering to assist the grip, and the spike at the bottom. 

ORDER OF VAULTING. — In scratch events 
(i.e., no handicaps) contestants are called to vault in 
the order in which their names appear on the program. 

In handicap events, the first to vault is the com- 
petitor having the greatest allowance (i.e., the one 
who is allowed the privilege of starting at the lowest 
height). The last to jump is the one having the least 
allowance, or the one who starts at scratch. 

Each is given three trials at each height of the bar. 
These three trials are not taken in immediate succes- 
sion. The first contestant vaults once, and, if he does 
not clear the bar, rests until the others have each had 
one vault; he then makes his second vault and, if 
he fails again, waits until his name is reached on the 
list a third time. 



Preliminaries 571 

If a vaulter fails on either or both of his first two 
trials but clears the bar on the third, he is considered 
successful at that height. If he succeeds on first or 
second trials, he should not vault again at that height. 

A contestant may refuse to vault at any height 
before he has made a first trial at that height; but 
having made a first trial and failed, he must vault a 
second time, and, if he fails on that, vault a third time. 

PRELIMINARIES.— A pole vaulter should de- 
termine, before the event is called, just where he should 
start his run, to bring his feet in correct position for 
the spring. For this he should take ten or twelve 
strides from the cross bar back along the runway and 
place there a marker, such as a sweater, or a piece of 
paper. He should cover that distance at full speed, 
starting from the jumping foot (usually the left) and 
note whether the jumping foot comes into the exact 
position for a proper vault. Then he should double 
this distance from the cross bar and shift another 
marker back and forth until he can start from this 
second marker, run fairly fast, land with the jumping 
foot at the point of the first marker, dash to the balk 
line, and have the jumping foot come into the exact 
position for a good vault. 

He should also step to the uprights, pole in hand, 
hold it vertically, and note where the cross bar to be 
cleared touches the pole. Place his left hand, if he 
jumps from the left foot, upon, or a little below, that 
spot on the pole, and the right hand about two feet 
farther up. He should grasp the pole with the palm 
of the right hand upwards and that of the left down- 
wards {i.e., palms facing inward). 



572 The Pole Vault 

If the contestant wishes to dig another hole for his 
pole than that provided, he is at Kberty to do so. 
It may not be more than one foot in diameter. 

THE VAULT. — RULES. — If the cross bar is 
displaced by the contestant's body or by the pole, the 
vault is a failure and does not score. 

Th-e upper hand may not be raised during the vault, 
nor the lower hand placed above it (called climbing 
the pole), though the latter may slide up along the 
pole until it meets the upper hand. 

Each contestant is entitled to three trials at each 
height of the cross bar, should he fail on the first or 
second trials. 

For both feet to leave the ground in an attempt to 
vault, without completing the vault, is called a try. 

To overrun the fifteen-foot line (balk line) is called a_ 
balk. Two balks are considered a try. 

A competitor may decline to vault at any height of 
the cross bar ; but if, having done so, he should fail 
on the next height, he may not go back to the lower 
one. 

If the pole breaks, the vault is not considered a try. 

FORM. — There are no rules governing this, but it is 
usually taken with a preliminary run, a spring from 
one foot as the pole is planted, and a landing on both 
feet. 

A competitor should start at the second (farther) 
mark which he has placed as a guide. He should hold 
the pole lightly and run with fair speed to the first 
mark, the body facing straight ahead and the pole 
pointing slightly upward. When he has reached the 
one of his two marks which is nearer the upright, he 



Score 573 

should sprint at full speed with the body well under 
control, still grasping the pole Hghtly. 

At the finish of the run (balk Hne, or point from 
which he will vault), he should push the pole into the 
hole in front of the plank, throw the right foot up- 
ward, and then spring from the left. There should be 
no jerk. The right arm should be extended and 
the left bent. After the pole has described an arc 
of about 45 degrees, the body, which has been swing- 
ing around the pole, is given a pull and push by the 
arms and brought to a horizontal position, while the 
pole goes through another 25 degrees. Just before 
the pole is vertical, an added push or spring from the 
arms sends the body over the cross bar. At the same 
time, the body should be arched and the arms held 
out straight, so that neither stomach, hip, nor elbow 
touches the cross bar. 

Just before the pole is pushed into the hole, and 
before the vault, the lower hand should slide up to 
within two or three inches of the upper, called the 
slide. 

In finishing, the body should descend facing the 
cross bar. Some pole vaulters, by means of a twist, 
face away from the cross bar. One should always 
alight on the feet, as a fall on the back or side may 
lead to disabKng sprains. 

SCORE. — The pole vaulter who succeeds in vault- 
ing over the highest cross bar wins, except in handicap 
events, when the handicapped player, to win, must 
jump higher than any other competitor, plus that 
competitor's handicap. 

If there be finals, the three highest are given three 



574 The Pole Vault 

more trials each, and the highest vault made by each 
is counted. 

In case of a tie in a scratch event {i.e., one in which 
there are no handicaps) the cross bar is lowered or 
raised at the discretion of the officials, and the tied 
competitors are allowed one trial at each height. 

For a tie in a handicap event, the competitor who 
had no allowance (scratch man) or the least allow- 
ance receives the award. 

OFFICIALS. — The Field Judges of the pole 
vault, under the direction of the Referee, take charge 
of the pole vault event. 

They should look over the grounds and equipment 
in advance, to be sure that all measurements and other 
official specifications are complied with. 

They should see that each contestant paces off 
and marks the ground for his start and take-off before 
the event is called. 

They place the bar to start with at any height they 
choose, and raise it after each competitor has either 
cleared it, or failed after a third trial. 

The vaulters are called up in the order in which their 
names appear on the program, or they may toss for 
choice, or the man with the largest handicap jumps first. 

If a man clears the bar, he does not try again until 
the bar is raised. If he misses, he waits until his name 
is reached again. If he fails again, he has a third trial, 
after which, in case of a miss, he must retire from the 
competition. 

The Field Judges keep an accurate score of each trial 
of each competitor, unless an official Scorer or his as- 
sistant be assigned to this duty. 



Records 575 

The decision of the Field Judges is final and fr<5m 
it there is no appeal. 

Any dispute or discussion with the judges should be 
promptly checked. If repeated or flagrant, the case 
should be reported promptly to the Referee, who has 
power to exclude contestants from the field for un- 
seemly conduct. 

OUTFIT. — Uprights cost $15 ; cross bars, $3 per 
dozen ; vaulting poles, $4 to $6. 

RECORDS. — 

Note. — These figures are not intended to give the latest 
records, but only to furnish a standard of comparison by which 
coaches may judge of the performance of athletes of different 
ages. 

HIGH SCHOOLS (Public Schools Athletic League, N.Y.) 

10 ft. 9 in. 
INTERSCHOLASTIC 12 ft. 6 J in. 

INTERCOLLEGIATE 13 ft. i in, 

WOMEN'S COLLEGES 5 ft. 8 in. 

ADULT (A.A.U. SENIOR) 13 ft. 



WEIGHT THROWING 




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THE shot-put 

THE FIELD. — The shot is put (thrown) from 
within a circle 7 feet in diameter (inside measurement). 
This circle may be drawn on the ground with white- 
wash, or it may be a metal or wooden ring painted 
white and sunk almost level with the ground. 

A toe board or stop board is placed on one quarter of 
the circumference of this circle, toward the front, over 
which the put is made. This toe board must be 
fastened firmly to the ground. The feet of the com- 
petitor may not touch the top of this toe board, but 
may rest against its inner face. 

The seven-foot circle should be divided in halves by a 
line at right angles to the direction of the put. This 
makes clear the front and rear halves of the circle, 
which have to be regarded in the rules. 

THE SHOT is of metal covered with any material. 
For all championship contests the total weight of the 
shot must be 16 pounds. 

The Amateur Athletic Union allows, for handicap meetings, 
a shot weighing from 12 pounds upward. The Public Schools 
Athletic League of New York allows any weight shot to be used. 
For elementary schools it is customary to use 8- and 12-pound 
shot, and for high schools, 12-pound. 

In winter time, an indoor shot can be used. This is 
made up of small shot inclosed first in a canvas covering 
and then in heavy leather. This shot can well be used 
on any wooden floor. 

579 



58o The Shot-Put 

ORDER OF COMPETING. — For scratch events 
(no handicap) competitors are called to the ring by the 
Field Judges, in the order in which the names appear 
on the program ; or they may toss a coin for the order 
of succession. In handicap events, the competitor 
having the greatest allowance has the first trial, and 
the one having little or no allowance is last. 

Each competitor has three trials, and his best 
(farthest) put is his record in the event, whether it 
be made on his first, second, or third trial. 

The three trials are not made in immediate succes- 
sion. The list is gone through three times. 

THE PUT is made with a thrust of the arm from 
the top of the shoulder ; it may not be made from back 
of the shoulder, or underneath the arm. 

The force of the entire body is added to that of the 
arm by a quick spring of the feet. 

The shot should be picked up with the left hand, to 
spare the right for the actual put. The contestant 
should step to the inner, rear edge of the circle. 
There resting the weight upon the right foot, he should 
transfer the shot to the palm of the right hand, its 
weight resting easily on the finger joints next to the 
palm, over, and, if possible, resting on, the right 
shoulder with the right elbow pointing outward (some 
putters hold the elbow close to the body). All the 
weight should be over the right foot, the right knee 
bent slightly ; the left arm and left foot should be 
raised to help balance the weight, the left side of the 
body pointing in the direction in which the shot is to 
be put. 

A quick, gliding hop, if such it might be called, must 



Measurement: Score 581 

then bring the right foot in front of the center of the 
ring, and the left foot to the forward edge of the circle. 
The right shoulder should then be far back and down 
and the right knee well bent. Without pause, the 
body should be twisted so that the right leg will 
take the place of the left, and vice versa. The right 
side of the body will now face in the direction of the 
put. 

At the moment before the legs change place, the 
right arm is thrust upward and outward and the shot 
allowed to leave the hand, receiving the final impetus 
from the fingers. There should be the feeling that the 
weight of the entire body, and the strength of the body, 
contribute to the flight of the shot. 

The movements described above must be continu- 
ous, quick and with little or no jerk. 

FOULS. — At no time must the contestant step 
on or over the circle. To do this is a foul, and the put 
so made counts as a trial, but does not score. 

To touch in any way the top of the front half of the 
circle, or the ground beyond the front half , before the 
put is measured, is a foul, and the put counts as a trial, 
but does not score. 

To drop the shot during any part of the trial, except 
on the final thrust, is a foul; this counts as a trial, 
but does not score. 

To throw the shot (that is, to place the right hand 
under, back of, and near the ear, instead of pushing it 
straight off from the shoulder) is a foul. This counts 
as a trial, but does not score. 

MEASUREMENT : SCORE. — The put is meas- 
ured from the nearest mark made in the earth by the 



582 The Shot-Put 

shot, to the outer edge of the circle at its nearest point. 
The A.A.U. determines this by a line from the mark 
to the center of the circle. 

Each competitor is given three trials, and his record 
in the event is the farthest of the three, whether it be 
made on the first, second, or third trials. 

If there be a final, the three or four contestants 
making the highest puts, or whose puts, plus their 
handicaps, add up the highest total, are each given 
three additional puts. The best put of the day en- 
titles the man who made it to first place, if the compe- 
tition be a scratch event. If, however, it be a handi- 
cap event, the handicaps are added to the actual puts 
to determine the winners. 

OFFICIALS. — The two or three Field Judges 
assigned to the shot put are in sole charge of the event. 
Before the hour announced for it to begin, they should 
inspect the field and equipment, weigh the shot, and 
be sure that all is ready and according to official 
specifications. 

Any preliminary practice by contestants must be 
done before the event is called, and not allowed after 
that time. 

The Field Judges call the contestants for their trials, 
watch for fouls, measure the puts and keep the records 
of all trials, unless an ofiicial Scorer or assistant be 
assigned to do this. There is no appeal from the 
decision of the Field Judges. 

Field Judges should suppress promptly any ten- 
dency to dispute or discussion on the part of contest- 
ants. Flagrant or repeated cases of this kind should 
be reported promptly to the Referee, who has power 



Records 583 

to exclude any competitors from the field for un- 
seemly conduct. 

OUTFIT. — A seven-foot circle costs $10 ; a toe 
board, $3.50; shot, from $1.50 to $7.50 each. 

RECORDS. — 

Note. — The object of these figures is not to give the latest 
records, but to afford coaches a standard of comparison for 
athletes of different ages. 

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS (Public Schools Athletic League, 
N.Y.) 

115-lb. class, 8-lb. shot, 40 ft. 4 in. 
Heavyweight, 12-lb. shot, 39 ft. 7 J in. 
HIGH SCHOOLS (P.S.A.L., N.Y.) 

12-lb. shot, 49 ft. 4f in. 
INTERSCHOLASTIC 8-lb. shot, 56 ft. yj in. 

12-lb. shot, 55 ft. 9 in. 
i6-lb. shot, 45 ft. 6| in. 
INTERCOLLEGLA.TE i6-lb. shot, 47 ft. 2f in. 

WOMEN'S COLLEGES 8-lb. shot, 33 ft. i in. 

ADULTS (A.A.U. SENIOR) i6-lb. shot, 50 ft. 3.01 in. 



THROWING THE DISCUS 

DESCRIPTION. — The discus throw was intro- 
duced to general athletic practice after the first modern 
Olympic games, in 1896. 

The order of competing, the trials, fouls, score, and 
officials are the same in the discus throw as in the 
shot put. 

The differences lie wholly in the implement used, the 
method of throwing it, and, for the Greek style of 
throw, the use of a pedestal instead of a circle. 

THE FIELD. — 

The throw in free style is made from a circle like 
that of the shot put, with the possible omission of 
the toe board. 

The throw in the Greek style is often made from a 
pedestal — a small, sloping, wooden platform, or box of 
dirt. This should measure 30 inches long (direction 
of the throw) by 27 inches broad. It should be 8 
inches high at the rear, and slope to 2 inches in front. 
Fifteen inches from the front board a whitewash line 
is drawn across the pedestal. The contestant, in 
throwing, must keep his forward (right) foot forward of 
this line and his left foot behind it. (Y.M.CA, 
rules.) 

THE DISCUS. — The discus is, roughly stated, 
the shape of two saucers, placed edge to edge. 

According to official specifications, it must be made 

584 




Free Style 585 

of wood, have a smooth iron rim and have a smooth 

metal plate over each face. It must not weigh 

less than 4 pounds 6.4 

ounces, and its diameter 

should be not less than 

8f inches, and not more 

than 9. One side must 

be like the other and the circumference must be 

smooth. A discus costs $5. 

THE THROW. — Two methods of throwing are 
in use — a so-called free style, and a classic^ or Greek 
style. 

FREE STYLE. — This is miade from a seven-foot 
circle. 

The discus should be held against the palm of the 
right hand, with its edge supported between the first 
and second joints of the fingers. The thumb should 
be held well away from the index finger ; the flight of 
the discus throughout should be guided by means of 
the index finger. 

The contestant should step into the circle and place 
the heel of the right foot on the inner edge, at the rear, 
on a line with the direction of the intended throw. 
The left foot should be placed a little ahead of the 
right. The right arm should be held horizontally 
and swung back and forth, down across the body, in 
the direction of the throw, holding it in place with 
the left hand, whenever it is swung in front. When 
the discus has been swung far back with sufiicient 
force, the thrower should pivot on the left foot and 
crouch slightly with both feet on the ground. He 
should then straighten the body, and with a strong 



586 Throwing the Discus 

throw upward and outward scale the discus in the air, 
at the same moment making a spring with the feet 
to transpose their position. The left foot will thus 
come to the front of the circle. 

GREEK STYLE. — In the so-called classic or Greek 
style, the competitor stands upon a small, sloping, 
wooden block, called the pedestal, or he may throw from 
within a seven-foot circle. He should hold the discus 
between both hands and over his head. His right leg 
should be in advance of the left. The discus should 
then be shifted entirely to the right hand, as in the 
free style throw. As this is done, the left hand should 
be brought to the right knee, while the right is carried 
downward and backward as far as possible along the 
side of the body. Then, with a quick straightening of 
the knees, a jump forward, and an upward swing of 
the right arm, the discus should be released. 

FOULS. — The following are fouls ; they each count 
as a trial, but the throw is not measured. 

To drop the discus at any time during the trial. 

To step on or over the circle during any part of 
the throw. 

To step on or over the front half of the circle, or 
touch the ground in any way forward of the front half, 
before the throw is measured. 

MEASUREMENT. — Under most rules the meas- 
urement is made from the nearest break made in 
the ground by the discus to the middle of the front 
edge of the pedestal, or to the inner circumference of 
the circle, on a line drawn from the break to the center 
of the circle. (P.S.A.L. rules specify measurement 
from the break to the center of the pedestal.) 



Throwing the Hammer 587 

RECORDS, DISCUS THROW. — 

Note. — This is not intended as a table of latest records, 
but merely to give coaches a standard of comparison for athletes 
of different ages. 

HIGH SCHOOLS (P.S.A.L., N.Y.) 

Greek style, 130 ft. 3 in. 
INTERSCHOLASTIC 

(Style not specified) 139 ft. 5 J in 
ADULT (A.A.U. SENIOR) 

Greek style, 97 ft. 
Free style, 135 ft. 6\ in. 



THROWING THE HAMMER 

This event is suitable for adults only. 

THE FIELD. — The seven-foot circle from which 
the hammer is thrown is the same as for the shot put, 
though the toe board is not a requirement. 

In the interests of safety, there should be around the 
circle from which the throw is made, a clear, level 
space of 190 feet in every direction. 

All rules, fouls, order of competing, officials, measure- 
ments, and score are the same as for the shot put. 
The only differences in the two events are in the im- 
plement used and the method of throwing it. 

THE HAMMER. — The hammer, under most rules, 
may be of any construction desired, but one comprised 
of a metal head and wire handle is customary. The 
minimum length and weight of the hammer are 
strictly specified. In all rules, the length must not 



588 Throwing the Hammer 

be over 4 feet, and judges should measure the hammer 
during a contest as well as before the event begins, 
as the wire is apt to stretch. The usual weight is 
16 pounds. 

This is the minimum requirement of the A.A.U. and Inter- 
collegiate rules; Y.M.C.A. rules allow a weight of from 12 to 
16 pounds. Lighter weight hammers are sometimes used down 
to 8 pounds, but are not official. 

Hammers are usually furnished by the Games 
Committee in charge of a meet ; any contestant may 
use his own hammer if its length and weight are accord- 
ing to specifications, but in that case any other com- 
petitor wishing to may use the same hammer. 

Hammers cost from $3.50 to $5. 

THE THROW is usually made after one or two 
turns of the body, the hammer being held low at first 
and swung up across the shoulder before being re- 
leased. Any position, and one or both hands, may 
be used, provided the following rules are observed : 

The contestant must not step on or over the circle during 
any part of his throw. 

He must leave by the rear half of the circle. 

He must not touch the top of the front half of the circle or 
the ground beyond the front half after the throw until the throw 
is measured. 

He must not drop the hammer during a trial. 

For any of the, above fouls the throw is not measured, but 
counts as a trial. 

If the hammer breaks in the hands of the contestant, 
the trial is not counted. If it breaks after leaving his 
hands it is counted as a trial and the throw is meas- 
ured. 



Form 589 

FORM. — With the back towards the direction in 
which the throw is to be made, the right foot should 
be placed just inside the rear edge of the circle and the 
left about two feet behind the right. The head of the 
hammer should lie as far outside of the circle as possible 
and to the right of the right foot. Grasping the handle 
tightly, the competitor should whirl the hammer three 
times over his head and as far as possible from the 
body, being careful that the head of the hammer be 
the farthest from the ground when over his left 
shoulder, and lowest when passing the right hip. 
The hammer should gradually acquire greater speed 
and at no time be beyond complete control. 

After the third turn of the hammer, when the missile 
is behind the body, the thrower should turn swiftly, 
pivoting upon the left foot ; the right foot should then 
be brought down again and the left shifted a Kttle 
backward, so that the thrower is again facing away 
from the direction of the throw. 

If only one turn of the body be used, the body and 
arms are then straightened, a powerful upward and 
backward (over the head) pull is given as the thrower 
rises on his toes, and the hands follow the hammer as 
it goes on its flight. Some competitors use two turns 
before letting go of the hammer, and the most proficient 
are able to use three turns and yet avoid stepping or 
falling outside of the seven-foot circle. 

The hammer* is sometimes thrown without turning.' 
The official definition of this (Y.M.C.A. rules) is 
that the body of the contestant shall not make more 
than half a turn, either during the preHminary swings 
or in the throw itself. 



590 Throwing 56-lb. Weight 

MEASUREMENT : SCORE. — The throw is meas- 
ured from the nearest edge of the nearest mark to 
the nearest point of the circle. 

The Field Judges of the hammer throw call each 
competitor to the circle in turn and after having 
measured and weighed the competitor's hammer, call 
upon him to throw. Three times is the list of names 
gone through. If there be no finals, he who has thrown 
the hammer the farthest is awarded first place. If 
the event be a handicap contest, the winner must have 
thrown the hammer farther than the sum of a rival's 
handicap and throw. If there be a final event, the 
three or four highest are each given three more trials, 
and the farthest throw made by any competitor 
during the trials wins first place, if it be a scratch 
event; if a handicap event, the handicaps must be 
added to each man's throw. 

RECORDS. — 

Note. — These figures are given to afford coaches a standard 
of comparison, and not to furnish the latest records. 

INTERSCHOLASTIC 12-lb. hammer, 197 ft. i in. 
INTERCOLLEGIATE i6-lb. hammer, 175 ft. 10 in. 
ADULT (A.A.U. SENIOR) 

i6-lb. hammer, 189 ft. 6| in. 



THROWING THE s6-LB. WEIGHT 

As here given the directions are for distance throws only. 
The weight is sometimes thrown for height, its ahitude being 
judged by a suspended surface marked to indicate height 
distances above the ground. 



Measurement 591 

THE FIELD. — This is exactly like the field for 
the hammer throw or shot put. All rules, fouls, order 
of competing, and officials are the same as for the 
hammer throw or shot put, the only differences being 
in the implement used and the manner of throwing. 

THE WEIGHT is a metal sphere with a handle of 
any shape or material. The combined weight of head 
and handle must be at least 56 pounds, and their 
combined height not more than 16 inches. Such a 
weight costs $12. 

THE THROW is made from within a seven-foot 
circle, exactly Hke that described for the shot put. 
Any form of throw may be used, provided the rules 
given below are observed. The usual form is some- 
what similar to the hammer throw. 

The contestant must not step on or over any part of the 
circle during his throw. 

He must leave the circle by the rear half. 

He must not step on or over the front half of the circle, or 
mark the ground in front of the forward half with his clothing 
or person in any way before the throw is measured. 

He must not let go of the weight during a trial until he re- 
leases it in the throw. 

Any throw made in accordance with the above rules 
is a fair throw. If any of these rules be broken, the 
throw is a foul. The attempt counts as a trial, but 
the throw is not measured. 

MEASUREMENT. — This is made from the near- 
est break in the ground made by any part of the 
weight or handle, to the inner circumference of the 
circle, on a line drawn from the break to the center of 
the circle. 



592 Throwing the Javelin 

SCORE. — Each contestant has three trials, and 
his record in the event is the farthest throw of the 
three, whether it be made in the first, second, or third 
trial. 

Elimination for finals, ties, handicaps, etc., are all 
conducted exactly as in the shot put. 

RECORD. — 

(For comparison only — not necessarily the latest record.) 
ADULT (A. A. U. SENIOR) 38 ft. 9I in. 



THROWING THE JAVELIN 

This is a Swedish event that has grown in popularity 
since the first modern Olympic games in 1896. 

THE FIELD is a level across which is marked a 
straight line called a scratch line or restraining line. 
This line (official rules) is a board 3 inches in width and 
12 inches in length, sunk flush with the ground. The 
thrower may not cross this line in throwing, nor touch 
the board with one or both feet. 

THE JAVELIN is a simple wooden shaft of hard 
wood that will not vibrate, and is fitted with a sharp 
iron or steel point at one end. The official total length 
is 8.5 feet, and the total weight not less than 1.6 
pounds complete as thrown. The javelin is so shaped 
that the distance between its foremost point and the 
center of gravity shall not be more than 1.203 yards 
(no centimeters), nor less than 2.953 feet (90 centi- 
meters). A grip is formed by binding the shaft about 



The Throw 593 

the center of gravity with whipcord for a distance of 
6.3 inches (16 centimeters). There may be no notches 
in the shaft, nor thongs to hold this grip, and it must 
not enlarge the shaft more than .9 of an inch (25 milli- 
meters) . 

THE THROW. — The javelin may be thrown by 
one hand, or by both, in the latter case the best throw 
being the record, or the record of the two hands may 
be added together. The following explanation is for 
the right-arm throw. 

The contestant should step about 18 yards back of 
the restraining Hne. He should hold the javelin by the 
grip in the right hand over the shoulder, wdth the upper 
arm parallel to the ground and the javelin grasped be- 
tween the thumb and first and second fingers. The 
other fingers should be lightly placed on the side of 
the javehn away from the body, to help steady it. 

With the javehn in this position, the contestant 
should run forward, gradually increasing the speed 
until the maximum is reached, from which the throw 
is made. Five yards before the spot for the thrown the 
contestant should slowly draw the hand and arm back- 
ward until the arm is in a line with the javehn. At 
maximum speed, with the right foot back of the body 
(the body being well bent backward), the javelin 
should be grasped more tightly and the right hand, 
arm, shoulder, and body shot forward, releasing the 
spear as the weight is transferred to the left foot. 

The thrower may not touch or cross the restraining 
Hne or board with either foot in delivering his throw, 
and may not cross this line at completion until his 
throw is marked. 

2Q 



594 



Baseball Distance Tlirow 



MEASUREMENT. — The throw is measured from 
the restraining line to the point on the ground first 
touched by the point of the javeUn. A throw does 
not count in which any part of the shaft touches the 
ground before the point, nor in which the javelin 
breaks while in flight. 

Trials and turns of competitors, the score, fouls, 
and officials are the same as for the shot put. 

RECORDS, JAVELIN THROW. — 



Note. 
records. 



• For comparison only ; not necessarily the latest 



INTERSCHOLASTIC (MEN) 
A.A.U. (SENIOR) 
OLYMPIC (1912) (BEST HAND) 
OLYMPIC (RIGHT AND LEFT 
HANDS ADDED TOGETHER) 



134 ft. 10 in. 

169 ft. loi in. 

200 ft. i-|^ in. 

358 ft. 11.86 in. 



BASEBALL DISTANCE THROW 



THE FIELD. — A circle or " box '' 6 feet in diam- 
eter is drawn on the ground. It is bisected by a line 
drawn across it at right angles to the direction of the 
throw. 

At intervals in front of the circle is drawn a series 
of lines, about 15 feet long, parallel to the line that 
crosses the circle — i.e., at right angles to the direc- 
tion of the throw. The ball scores according to its 
passing^ these lines. 



Score 595 

For players of different ages the lines are drawn at 
the following distances from the front edge of circle. 

Age Nuaiber of Feet 
7 to II years 12-18-27 ft. 

12 to 15 years 15-2 1-3 1 ft. 

High School 60-70-80 ft. 

College 75-100-150-200 ft. 

THE THROW must be an overhand throw. At 
starting, the player toes the line that crosses the circle. 
In delivering the ball he springs forward into the for- 
ward half of the circle, but if he steps or falls on or be- 
yond the circle, the throw is a foul and does not score. 

SCORE. — For younger players the distances 
score as follows : 

A ball falling in the zone between the first and 
second Unes scores i point; in the second zone 3 
points, and in the third zone 5 points. 

In an individual competition, the player scoring 
the largest number of points wins. 

In a team competition, the team which has the high- 
est total of points wins. If the number of players on 
the teams is unequal, that team wins which has the 
largest average of points. 

For older players, the distance is measured ac- 
curately, as in a shot put, except that for so great a 
distance the Unes serve merely as landmarks to shorten 
the distance for stretching the tape. 

In this form of contest each player has three trials, 
the list being gone through three times in succession, 
and the best throw of the three is that player's record 
for the event. 



596 Basket Ball Distance Throw 

OFFICIALS. — Field Judges are in sole charge 
of this event. Their decisions are final. 

RECORDS, BASEBALL DISTANCE THROW.— 

Note. — As a standard for comparison only, not necessarily 
the latest record. 

WOMEN'S COLLEGES 205 ft. 7 in. 



BASKET BALL DISTANCE THROW 

THE FIELD. — A circle or box, 6 feet in diameter, 
is drawn on the ground. It is bisected by a line drawn 
across it at right angles to the direction of the throw. 

At intervals in front of the circle is drawn a series of 
lines, about 15 feet long, parallel to the line that 
crosses the circle — i.e., at right angles to the direc- 
tion of the throw. The ball scores according to its 
passing these lines. 

For players of different ages the lines are drawn at 
the following distances from the front edge of the circle. 

Age Number or Feet 
7 to II years 12-18-27 f^^t 

12 to 15 years 15-2 1-3 1 feet 

High School 60-70-80 feet 

College 75-100 feet 

THE THROW is quite similar to a shot put. The 
ball should be held in the right hand over the right 
shoulder. The feet should be in a stride position, 
the left foot forward, toeing the line across the center 



Records 597 

of the circle, the right foot back, with the right knee 
bent and sustaining the weight. 

The left side should be turned forward and the left 
arm raised in the direction of the throw. 

With a spring, the right foot should be placed in the 
forward half of the circle, and the ball pushed forward 
with the force of the entire body behind it. 

This throw may also be taken as an underhand 
throw, in which case the ball rests in the palm of the 
hand and against the wrist as the arm is swung down- 
ward and backward at the side. With one or two 
preHminary swings of the full arm in the direction of 
the throw, the same spring and delivery are made as 
for the shoulder put. 

If the player steps or falls on or beyond the circle, 
the throw is a foul. It counts as a trial, but does not 
score. 

SCORE. — A ball falling in the zone between the 
first and second lines scores i point; in the second 
zone 3 points ; and in the third zone 5 points. 

In an individual competition, the player scoring the 
largest number of points wins. 

In a team competition, the team which has the 
highest total of points wins. If the number of 
players on the teams is unequal, that team wins which 
has the largest average of points. 

OFFICIALS. — Field Judges are in sole charge of 
this event. Their decisions are final. 

RECORDS. — 

Note. — For a standard of comparison only ; not given 
as necessarily the latest record. 

WOMEN'S COLLEGES * 80 ft. if in. 



ROWING RACES 



ROWING RACES 

Whenever the skill of a single oarsman, or even of a 
pair, or of four, or of eight, is in question, and when- 
ever that skill is pitted against the strength and en- 
durance of another single oarsman, or pair, or four, 
or eight as the case may be, in organized competition, 
specially built boats are customarily used. They are 
built of very light wood, are narrow and long and are 
propelled by long, spoon-shaped oars. 

To successfully row a shell, as a racing craft is 
called, requires months of training and a thorough 
knowledge of the manner in which to manipulate the 
oars. 

THE COURSE. — The length of course over which 
boat races are held varies from i to 4 miles. Inland 
water, with little or no current and a straightaway 
course, is ideal, especially if the water is seldom rough. 

Many courses, however, are on tidewater. In order 
that the running of the tide affect the race as Kttle as 
possible, the events are sometimes scheduled as near 
as possible to the time between the change of tides, 
when the water is slack, — the main object being not 
to compel a crew to race against the tide or current. 

Flags, floating upon small wooden floats, are used 
to mark the start and finish. 

CREWS. — Oarsmen compete against each other 
singly (singles), in pairs, in fours, or in eights. 

601 



6o2 Rowing Races 

An oarsman is one who, in the boat with another, 
or other, mates, grasps and rows one oar, termed a 
sweep, with both hands. A sculler is one who, alone 
or in company with others, grasps in each hand a 
shorter oar, called a scull. 

There are four classes of oarsmen and scullers, — 
juniors, intermediates, seniors, and champions. 

A junior sculler is one who has never won a scull 
race ; and a junior oarsman, one who has never 
been a member of a crew that has won a race for 
oarsmen. 

An intermediate sculler is one who, having won 
or helped to win a junior race, has never won a 
race for intermediate or senior scullers ; and an inter- 
mediate oarsman one who, having won or helped to 
win a junior race for oarsmen, has never been a mem- 
ber of a winning intermediate senior race for oarsmen. 

A senior sculler is one who, having won or helped 
to win a sculling race for intermediates, has never 
been a member of a crew that has won a senior race 
for scullers. A senior oarsman is one who, hav- 
ing won or helped to win a race for intermediate 
oarsmen, has never won a senior race for intermediate 
oarsmen. 

A championship sculling race is open to winners 
of previous senior sculling races, and a championship 
for oarsmen is open only to winners of previous races 
for senior oarsmen. The winner or winners of cham- 
pionship races are termed champions. 

When choosing a crew, long, slender-built candi- 
dates, all other things being equal, are preferable. 
Each man should weigh at least 145 pounds. 



Officials 603 

The heavier men of an eight should be seated in the 
center of the boat and the weights of the men in the 
bow and stern should be equal so that the boat will 
ride on an even keel ; that is, be not too high in the 
bow or in the stern. 

A crew should be made up of men of similar builds, 
so far as that is possible. 

THE STROKE of the crew is the oarsman who sits 
in the seat in front of the coxswain and the time of his 
strokes must be followed by the other members of the 
crew. 

COXSWAIN. — In fours or eights, steering is done by 
a man in the stern who faces the oarsmen, and who is 
called the Coxswain. His work is described under 
'^ steering.'' 

REGATTAS. — In a regatta, as a series of races 
held over the same course is termed, races for junior 
singles, doubles, pairs, fours, and eights, for inter- 
mediate singles, doubles, pairs, fours, and eights, are 
often included, if a sufficient number of entries for 
each race are obtained. In regattas, college Varsity 
crews are rated as seniors, and college crews that have 
won other intercollegiate races, as intermediates. 

Each one of a pair grasps a single oar in both hands, 
whereas each member of a double holds a scull in each 
hand. 

The entry fee for an eight is usually $20 ; for a four^ 
$15 ; for a pair, $10 ; and for a single, $5. The entry 
fee or fees are usually paid by the club represented by 
the competing crew. 

OFFICIALS. — An Umpire is the official in charge 
of a regatta. Sometimes he acts as Starter. If not, 



6o4 Rowing Races 

another official, the Starter, acts under the direction 
6i the Umpire. 

A Judge or Judges at the Finish report to the Um- 
pire the order in which the competitors finished, and 
the Umpire decides as to which of the oarsmen who 
finished among the leaders are entitled to places. 
The Umpire may reserve decision; but it must be 
given some time during the day upon which the regatta 
is held. 

THE RACE. — The Umpire starts the boats by 
signal, usually a shot. The stern of competing boats 
must be at the starting line. At the finish, the order 
in which the bows cross the line determines their 
respective order. 

A boat must remain in its own water (corresponding 
to lanes in sprint races) and not cross over and touch 
or interfere with a competing boat. Any such inter- 
ference is a foul and the penalty is disqualification. 
The Umpire inflicts said penalty. If a shell crosses over 
into another's water, but does not interfere with an 
opposing shell, no penalty is inflicted by the Umpire, 
who is sole judge as to whether such crossing resulted 
in interference. 

Whenever a foul is committed, the Umpire may 
award the race to the competitors in the order in which 
they finished, excluding the offending boat, or order 
that those who did not offend row the race over again, 
or order that those who did not offend row again from 
the place where the foul was committed. 

If there is a dead heat, that is, if two boats are tied, 
so that both bows cross the line at exactly the same 
moment, the Umpire orders the race to be rowed over 



6o6 Rowing Races 

again, after a long enough interval to enable the con- 
testants to recover from the previous effort. If a 
competitor refuses to row a dead heat over again, he is 
considered to have lost the race. 

When the course has a turn, each entry has its own 
turning stake, and if a crew turns around another's 
stake, it does so at its own peril. 

START. — The boats are ordered to the starting 
line by the Umpire and there by lot is determined the 
relative position of each shell. The boat that is for- 
tunate enough to win first choice will take all condi- 
tions into consideration before choosing, as this 
first choice is no mean advantage. If the tide is 
running in the direction in which the race is to be 
rowed, a position in toward the center of the stream 
is preferable ; whereas, if the tide is running in the 
opposite direction, a position as near as possible to the 
bank, out of the full force of the tide, is an advantage. 
Wind and local conditions must also be taken into 
account. 

The tip of the stern of the boat must be brought up 
to the starting line. The oarsman or oarsmen reach 
forward, ready to catch the water with the blade of 
the oar as far back as possible at the starting signal. 
At the report of the Umpire's or Starter's gun, the 
blade is pulled through the water. Some crews start 
with two short strokes and then a long one, or a short, 
a three-quarter, and then a long one. 

THE STROKE. — This is the most important 
element in a race. The following description refers 
to the handling of a sweep, as an oar that is pulled with 
both hands is termed. 



The Stroke 607 

Step into the shell lightly, sweep in hand. Sit 
down, place feet against stretcher, as the board rests 
for the feet are termed, and fasten oar in rowlock, 
convex side of blade resting on the water. Bend down 
and fasten the straps on stretcher around the feet. 

The oar should be grasped with the inside hand 
close to the end, the outside hand about a hand's 
breadth distant from the inside hand and the thumbs 
down and around the oar. The oar should be held so 
that all the fingers feel it and so that the knuckles of 
the thumbs are no more than a hand's breadth apart. 

The heels should be close together and the knees 
about a foot apart. 

Racing boats have a sliding seat. When that seat 
is as far toward the stern (back of the boat) as it will 
slide, the body should be bent forward from the hips, 
the shoulders drawn downward and backward, the 
chest out, and the spinal column as straight as possible. 
At the same time the oar should be held with the hands 
over the toes, the arms and hands in line, the knees 
bent and a foot apart, the heels together. The blade 
of the oar should be perpendicular to the water and the 
bottom of the blade about to touch the water. 

The blade is turned just a trifle forward as the arm 
is raised and the oar immersed, so that only the blade is 
covered, and then is held vertically in the water. 

At that moment the whole weight of the body should 
be put to the oar, and the ensuing instant the slide 
should be allowed to begin to travel toward the bow 
of the boat. The knees should be firmly pressed 
against the stretcher so that they flatten and cause 
the slide to move backward, and the body should 



6o8 Rowing Races 

swing in line with the boat towards the bow. The 
arms must be kept straight until just as the body has 
begun to swing past the perpendicular. Then the 
arms should be bent and carried down close by the 
sides, until the hands touch the chest at the bottom of 
the breastbone. 

This swing backward of the body from the hips and 
bending of the arm will have caused the oar to travel 
backwards through the water. During its immersion 
from the time of the catch, when full power should be 
applied, to the time it is about to be taken out, the pull 
on the oar should be steady and even, and at no time 
should the top of the blade show above water or deeper 
than just below the surface. The finish should be 
with power on the oar, but without a jerk, and the 
body, when swinging backward, should not swing in 
the least from one side to the other. 

The moment that the breast is touched, a quick 
drop of the forearm should carry the blade out of the 
water and an unappreciable time thereafter a drop of 
the wrist should bring the blade horizontal and 
parallel to the water and then the arm should be 
straightened ; but the shoulder must not be thrust 
forward. At the same time the body should be swung 
forward (toward the stern) from the hips, the spine 
straight, shoulders down and back, and chest out. 
Just as the body passes the perpendicular, the slide 
is started toward the stern, so that it will have traveled 
as far as possible in that direction, when the hands 
are again over the toes. 

The wrist should then be brought into line with the 
arm, so that the blade is again perpendicular to the 



Steering 609 

surface of the water and the strokes are repeated as 
described above. 

The catch (as the act of dropping the oar into the 
water is termed), the pull through the water, the 
finish of the stroke, and the recovery (as the act 
of disengaging the oar from the water and bringing it 
back preparatory to the catch is called) , — are all 
one continuous motion. With a finished oarsman, 
the movements all merge one into the other. The 
act of bringing the oar over the water parallel to its 
surface is termed feathering, and at that time the oar 
should b^ two or three inches above the surface of the 
water. The head should be held erect at all times. 

The directions above apply with equal force to the 
sculler, with the exception that he grasps a scull with 
each hand, close to the end, and that his power must 
be applied with equal force to each oar, so that the 
boat will steer a straight course. 

STEERING. — In order to aid the sculler to steer 
a straight course, he keeps his eye upon one fixed 
object on the bank and then keeps his shell in Hne 
with that object. From time to time, he also looks 
over his shoulder without turning his head through an 
angle of more than 40 degrees. 

A coxswain steers a four or an eight. He is usually 
a light man, weighing from 100 to 115 pounds, who sits 
in the stern of the boat, facing the oarsmen. He holds 
in his hands the lines that control the rudder. 

He should sit with his legs crossed, should not shift, 
have his hands on the sides of the boat to steady it, 
and his body should give from the hip with the move- 
ment of the boat. He should make as little use of the 



6io Rowing Races 

rudder as possible, so as not to retard the boat, and 
when he does use it, do so between strokes and apply 
it gradually. 

The coxswain should study conditions and should 
decide whether to guide the boat out into the tide or 
not, should give all orders when to stop or start and 
should be the judge of pace. He should decide when 
the time is ripe for a faster or slower stroke and when 
for a spurt, subject to the will of the stroke or captain, 
all of which calls for the best of judgment. 

Over a three-mile course, a crew ought to be able to 
row 33 strokes to the minute all the way, ap,d be able 
to use 38 for the spurt ; whereas over a mile course, 
38 strokes to the minute for the course, and about 41 
to the minute for the spurt, should be the average. 

OUTFIT. — THE SHELLS used by oarsmen are 
owned by the clubs to which the athletes belong, with 
the exception of the single shell, which is usually the 
personal property of the sculler who uses it. This shell 
is usually about 26 feet long, about 11 inches wide, 
and weighs about 28 pounds. The sculls are about 
9 feet and 9 inches long and the blade about 6 inches 
wide. 

An eight-oared shell is usually about 60 feet long, 
2 feet wide, and weighs about 2 70 pounds. The sweeps 
are usually 12 J feet long and the width of blade about 
6 inches. 

The shells are usually made of cedar with ribs of ash. 
Well- varnished linen covers the top of bow and stern. 

DRESS. — Oarsmen wear light woolen, or mixed 
woolen and cotton, sleeveless, bathing jerseys and 
trunks, woolen socks, and canvas shoes. 



6i2 Rowing Races 

INDOOR ROWING MACHINES, upon which candi- 
dates for a crew can practice in a gymnasium during 
the winter months, cost from $i6 to $30. 

HISTORY. — Not until the end of the eighteenth 
century was competitive rowing recognized as a sport. 
There are records of rowing races held and rowing 
clubs in existence early in the nineteenth century. 

In 1833, Yale University crews competed at country 
fairs. In 1839 the first of the world-famous Henley 
Regattas was held at Henley, England. Three years 
later the first organized boat races in America were 
held by the Detroit Boat Club. In 1845 ^he outrigger 
was invented. 

In 1848 was organized the Atlantic Boat Club of 
New York City, the forerunner of many others on the 
Harlem River and on the Schuylkill at Philadelphia. 

Four years later (1852), Harvard and Yale held their 
first eight-oared race. Both crews competed in barges, 
a heavier, wider craft than a shell, uncovered at the 
top. 

In 1870 Yale was the first to use the sliding seat. 

To-day regattas are held all over the world, and each 
year the most expert of the world's oarsmen compete 
at Henley for various trophies and title. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Book of College Sports. By Walter Camp. (New York, The 
Century Company, 1900.) 

Book of Sports and Pastimes. (New York, Cassell and Com- 
pany.) 

How to Row. By E. J. Ginnini. (New York, American Sports 
Publishing Company.) 



Glossary 613 

Athletics mtd Outdoor Sports for Women. Edited by Lucille 

E. Hill. (New York, The Macmillan Company.) 
Practical Rowing with Scull and Sweep, By Arthur W. 

Stevens. (New York, Little, Brown and Company, 

1906). 
Encyclopedia of Sport. Edited by the Earl of Suffolk and 

Berkshire. (Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott Company.) 
A Boy^s Modern Playmate. Edited by Rev. J. G. Wood. 

(Philadelphia, Frederick Warne and Company.) 



GLOSSARY 

Barge. Racing boat, broader and heavier than a shell. 

Bow. Extreme front of a boat. 

Catch. The entrance of the oar into the water. 

Course. Water, over which race is rowed. 

Coxswain. Steersman of racing craft. 

Dead heat. Race, in which competitors reach the finish at 

the same instant. 
Eight. Shell propelled by eight oarsmen. 
Feathering. Act of turning oar so that blade is parallel to 

the surface of the water. 
Four. Racing shell propelled by four oarsmen. 
Intermediate. Oarsman or sculler, who has won a race for 

junior oarsmen or scullers, respectively ; but never one 

for intermediate or seniors. 
Junior. Oarsman or sculler, who has never won a junior 

race for oarsmen or scullers respectively. 
Oarsman. One w^ho rows a sweep. 
Outrigger. Iron framework at side of shell, into which oar 

. is fastened. 
Over-reach. To push shoulders too far forward, when body 

is bent forward and arms are extended at the moment 

before the catch. 
Pair-oared. Shell, in which each of two oarsmen grasps a 

sweep. 



6 14 Rowing Races 

Pull through. Act of piilling the blade of the oar through 

the water after the catch. 
Recovery. Act of pushing the blade of the oar through the 

air after the pull through, preparatory to the catch. 
Regatta. Series of races held over the same course on the 

same or successive days. 
Rudder. Piece of wood at the stern, with which the boat is 

steered. 
Sculls. Short oars, one held in each hand. 
Sculler. One who uses sculls. 

Senior. Sculler or oarsnian, who has won a race for inter- 
mediate scullers or oarsmen respectively; but has never 

won a race for seniors. 
Shell. Lightest of boat-racing craft. 
Single. Shell propelled by a single oarsman. 
Slide. Movable top of the oarsman's or sculler's seat. 
Starter. Official who starts a race. 
Steer. To direct the course of a boat by means of rudder or 

oars. 
Stern. The extreme rear of a boat. 
Stroke. The number of times that the oar is dipped into the 

water within a prescribed time ; or the oarsman, who sits 

nearest the stern and sets the pace that the others must 

follow. 
Sweep. Long oar, gripped by both hands. 



INDEX 



Amateur and professional stand- 
ards, 3. 
Amateur Athletic Union, 8. 
Assistants to officials, 503. 
Athletic games, definition of, 1. 

For different ages and sexes, 7. 

For elementary schools, 9, 10. 

For high schools, 9, 10. 

For women, 8. 
Athletic organizations, 6. 
Athletic Research Society, 7. 
Athletics, organized, 1. 



BASEBALL, 29. 

Assist, 63. 

Backstop, 35. 

Ball, 52. 

Balk, 54. 

Basemen, in general, 57. 

First baseman, 59. 

Second baseman, 60. 

Third baseman, 60. 
Baseplates and bags, 74. 
Baserunner, 44. 

For first base, 46. 

Second, third, and fourth bases, 
48. 

May be put out, 49. 

May not be put out, 49. 

May return, 49. 

Must return, 49. 
Bases, 34. 
Bats, 73. 
Batsman, 38. 

Batter's place, 39. 

Batting, 41. 

Batting order, 38. 

Duties in general, 40. * 

Fair hit, 41. 

Form of play, 39. 

Foul hit, 41. 

Given first base, 43. 

Given home run, 44. 

Is out, 43. 

Rules for, 43. 
Battery, 54. 
Batter's box, 34, 38. 
Batting, 41. 
Batting order, 38. 



BASEBALL — Continued. 
Bibliography, 76. 
Catcher, 54. 
As fielder, 55. 
Becomes baseman, 56. 
Catcher's place, 54. 
Return of ball, 55. 
Signals, 56. 
Catching balls, 54. 
Coachers, 51. 
Coachers' line, 36. 
Coaching, 51. 
Dress, 74. 
Error, 63, 67. 
Fair Hit, 41. 
Field, 33. 
Fielder, 61. 

Assist, 63. •; 

Catching, 62. 
Error, 63, 66, 67. 
Fielder's place, 61. 
Fielder's throwing, 63. 
Foul hit, 41. 
Foul lines, 35. 
General description, 29. 
Glossary, 77. 
History, 75. 
Home run, 40. 
Match games, 72. 
Officials, 70. 
Outfit, 73. 
Pitcher, 51. 
Balk, 54. 

Pitcher's plate, 35. 
Rules for, 53. 
Player's benches, 36. 
Score, 64. 
Scorekeeper, 72. 
Shortstop, 60. 
Teams, 36. 
Three-foot line, 36. 

Umpire, 70. 

BASEBALL DISTANCE THROW, 

594. 
BASKET BALL DISTANCE 

THROW, 596. 
BROAD JUMP, RUNNING, 553. 
Standing, 557. 
Three Standing, 560. 
Bye, 16. 

BASKET BALL, 87. 
Advancing the ball, 95. 



6iS 



6i6 



Index 



BASKET BALL ~ Continued. 
Axioms, 100. 
Ball, 111. 

Advancing, 95. 

Fouls, in methods of playing, 
102. 
In throwing a goal, 103. 

Out of bounds, 101, 104. 

Putting in play, 93. 
Baskets (goals), 88, 111. 
Bibliography, 113. 
Captains, 111. 
Center, 92. 
Center circle, 90. 
Classified fouls and penalties, 

102. 
Court, 88. 
Delay of game, 105. 
Dress, 111. 
Dribbling, 96. 
Formations, 100. 
Forwards, 91. 
Free throw lane, 90. 
Free throw line, 90. 
Free throws, 99. 
Fouls, classified, 102. 

Methods between players, 103. 

Throwing for goal, 103. 

Penalties for, 99. 
General description, 87. 
Glossary, 113. 
Goals, 88, 111. 
Guards, 91. 
History, 112. 
Lateness of players, 105. 
Match games, 107. 
Methods between players, 103. 
Officials, 108. 
Out of bounds, 101, 104. 
Outfit, 111. 
Passing and advancing the ball, 

95. 
Penalties for fouls, 99. 
Players, fouls, 103. 

Lateness of, 105. 

Out of bounds, 104. 

Tackling, 97. 

Teams, 91. 
Putting ball in play, 93. 
Referee, 108. 
Rules, 93. 

Advancing the ball, 95. 

Free throw, 99. 

Passing, 95. 

For putting ball in play, 93. 
Score, 105. 
Scorer, 110. 
Start, 92. 
Substitutes, 92. 
Tackling, 97. 
Teams, 91. 

Throwing for goal, 98, 103. 
Time, 105. 
Time keeper, 110. 
Umpire, 109. 



BASKET BALL (LINE GAME), 

117 fe. 

Advancing the bail, 122. 
Ball, out of bounds, 127. 

Passing and advancing, 122. 

Put in play, 122. 

Specifications for, 138. 
Baskets, 118, 138. 
Bibliography, 139. 
Center circle, 120. 
Choice of goals, 121. 
Classified list of fouls and penal- 
ties, 128. 

Between players, 129. 

Methods of playing the ball, 
128. 

Out of bounds, player or ball, 
132. 

Time, delay, lateness, 133. 

Throwing for Goal, 130. 
Court, 118. 
Delay of game, 133. 
Dimensions of court, 118. 
Dress, 138. 
Dribbling, 123. 
Field lines, 118. 
Fouls, penalties for, 126. 

See Classified list, 128. 
Free throw lane, 120. 
Free throw line, 120. 
Free throws, 126. 
Glossary, 139. 
Goals, 118. 

Throwing for, 124. 
Guarding, 123. 
History, 139. 
Interfering, 123. 
Lateness of players, 133. 
Linesmen, 136. 
Officials, 134. 
Out of bounds, 127. 
Outfit, 138. 
Passing the ball, 122. 
Penalties for fouls, 126. 
Putting the ball in play, 122. 
Referee, 134. 
Scorer, 137. 
Start, 122. 
Substitutes, 121. 
Teams, 120. 
Throwing for goal, 124. 

Fouls in, 130. 
Time, 133. 
Timekeeper, 137. 
Umpire, 135. 



Class Athletics, 12. 
Champion, 475. 
Championships, 16. 
Classification of Athletes (Track 
and Field), 474. 

Champion, 475. 

Elementary schools, 475. 



Index 



617 



Classification of Atliletes (Tracli 
and Field) — Continued. 

High schools, 475. 

Junior, 474, 476. 

Novice, 474. 

Senior, 475, 476. 

Weight classifications, 476. 
Classification of Oarsmen, 601. 

Intermediate sculler, 602. 

Junior sculler, 602. 

Senior sculler, 602. 
Clerk of course, 477, 490. 
Collegiate Athletic Association 

(IVational), 6. 
Competition, 11. 

Class, individual team, 11. 
Course, change of, in race, 483. 
Courts, how to marlc, 26. 
CROSS COUNTRY RUN, 545. 
Crouching start, 479. 



DASH, see Sprint Race. 
Diamond, Baseball, 34. 
DISCUS THROW, 584. 
Free stvle, 585. 
Greek style, 586. 
DISTANCE TRACK RACES, 519. 

See Middle Distance. 
DISTANCE THROW, BASEBALL, 

594. 
DISTANCE THROW, BASKET 

BALL, 596. 
Doubles, see Handball, Lawn Tennis, 
Squash Tennis. 



Errors, see Baseball. 
Elementary schools, games for 
boys, 9. 

Games for girls, 10. 
Novice, 475. 

Weight classification, 476. 
Elimination series, 15. 



Facing, ice hoclcey, 288, 293. 
Fair catch, intercollegiate foot- 
ball, 203. 
Fair hit, baseball, 41. 

Indoor baseball, 324. 
False starts in running races, 481. 
Fault, see Lawn Tennis. 
Field average, baseball, 68. 
Fielder, see Baseball. 
Fields, how to mark, 26. 
Field judge, track and field 

events, 500. 
Fifty-six pound weight, 590. 
FIELD HOCKEY, 143. 

Advancing the ball, 156. 

Ball, methods of playing, 154. 



FIELD HOCKEY — Continued. 
Ball, roll-in, 155. 

Sent behind goal line, 155. 
. Specifications, 144. 
Bibliography, 172. 
Bully-off, 150. 
Captains, 168. 
Choice of goals, 150. 
Classified fouls and penalties, 

161. 
Corner hit, 159. 
Dimensions and lines, 144. 
Dress for women, 170. 
Field, 144. 

Finger protectors, 169. « 

Flags, 145. 

Cost of, 168. 
Forwards, 146. 
Fouls and penalties classified, 

161. 
Free hit, 157, 158. 
Fouls, 161. 

Ball, manner of playing, 162. 

Corner hit, 157. 

Fouls made in penalty shots, 159. 

Free hit, 157. 

Obstructing players, 161. 

Offside play, 154. 

Penalty bully, 157. 

Penalty corner, 158. 

Personal interference, 161. 

Players, 161. 

Roll-in, 155. 

Rough play, 167. 

Sent behind goal line, 155. 

Sticks, 163. 

Umpires, 165. 
Full backs, 149. 
Gloves, 169. 
Goal keeper, 150. 
Goals, 145, 168. 
Half backs, 149. 
History, 170. 
Inside right and left, 148. 
Intercepting the ball, 156. 
Interference, 156. 
In touch, 155. 
Left wing, 148. 
Line-up, 146. 
Linesmen, 168. 
Match games, 165. 
Methods of playing the ball, 154. 
Net, 145. 

Obstructing a player, 161. 
Officials, 166 flf. 
Offside play, 154, 161. 
Outfit, 168. 
Passing, 156. 
Penalties for fouls, 157. 
Penalty bully, 157, 158, 164. 
Penalty Corner, 158, 159, 160. 
Penalty goal, 161. 
Personal interference, 152, 156, 161. 
Players, rules for, 153, 161. 

Interference, 161. 



6i8 



Index 



FIELD HOCKEY — Continued. 
Players, obstructing, 161. 

Offside play, 161. 

Rough play, 161. 
Right and left wings, 148. 
Roll-in, 155. 
Rough play, 161. 

Rubber ring finger protectors, 169. 
Rules for ball, 154. 

Players, 153, 161. 

Sticks, 153, 163. 
Score, 164. 
Shin guards, 170. 
Shoes, 170. 
» Sticks, rules for, 153, 163. 
Striking circle, 145. 
Wings, right and left, 148. 
Finish of running races, 484. 
Flags for field hockey, 145. 
FOOTBALL, Different Games Ex- 
plained, 181. See Football, 
Intercollegiate, and Soccer 
Football. 
FOOTBALL, INTERCOLLEG- 

IATE, 181. 
Advancing the ball, after a kick- 
off, 197. 

After a snap back, 198. 

Forward pass, 199. 

Running, 200. 

Tackling, 200. 
Ball, position of, for scrimmage, 
196. 

Put in play by snapper back, 
195. 

Specifications, 216. 
Batting the ball forbidden, 203. 
Bibliography, 218. 
Center, 187. 

Dimensions and lines of field, 186. 
Dress, 26. 
Drop kick, 203. 
End, 190. 
Fair catch, 203. 
Field, specifications for, 186. 
Forward pass, 199. 
Full back, 192. 
Game, 192. 

General description of game, 181. 
Glossary, 219. 
Goal, choice of, 192. 

From touchdown, 206. 

Kicked from field, 211. 

Ways of making, 205. 
Gridiron, 187. 
Guard, 189. 
Half backs, 192. 
History, 217. 
Kick, drop, 203. 

Place kick, 203. 

Punt, 203. 
Kick-off, 194, 197. 
Linesmen, 215. 
Methods of playing the ball, 202. 

Batting, 202. 



FOOTBALL, INTERCOLLEGIATE. 

Methods of playing the ball — Con- 
tinued. 

Drop kick, 203. 

Fair catch, 203. 

Kicking, 203. 

Place kick, 203. 

Pxmt, 203. 
Officials, 212. 

Field judge, 215. 

Linesman, 215. 

Referee, 214. 

Umpire, 213. 
Outfit, 216. 
Punt, 203. 
Punt out, 208. 
Quarterback, 191. 
Running with ball, 200. 
Safety, 211. 
Score, 205, 212. 
Scrimmage, 194. 
Signals, 183. 
Snap back, 196, 198. 
Snapper back, 195, 196. 
Start of game, 193. 
Tackle, 190. 
Tackling, 200. 
Teams, 187. 

Center, 187. 

End, 190. 

Full back, 192. 

Guard, 187. 

Half backs, 192. 

Quarter back, 191. 

Tackle, 190. 
Touchback, 211. 
Touchdown, 206. 

Ways of making a goal and of 
scoring, 205. 
Form in general, 3. 
Forward pass, 199. 
Foul hit, baseball, 41. 
Indoor baseball, 324. 
Fouls in running races, 516. 
, Free style discus throw, 585. 
' Free throw, see Basket Ball. 

G 

*' Get set," 494. 
GOLF, 225. 

Addressing the ball, 231. 

Permissible to touch ball in, 

232. 
To move a ball in, 257. 
Advice and information, 262. 
Approach, the, 232, 242. 
Assistance in holing out, 246. 
Ball, bad lie, 227. 

Covered in sand, 253. 
Dropped, 239. 
Falls off tee, 241. 
Hidden, 253. 

If moved after stance in hazard, 
232. 



Index 



619 



GOLF — Continued. 

Ball, in motion, 257, 258, 259. 

Interference on putting green, 
244. 

Is considered holed out, 243. 

May be lifted, 260. 

Moved, 254, 257. 

Out of bounds, 241. 

Placed, 240. 

Re-teed, 240. 

Specifications for, 263. 

Stymie, 244. 

Within six inches, 244. 
Bad lie, 227. 
Best ball match, 235. 
Bibliography, 265. 
Bisque, 252. 

Bogey competition, 235. 
Casual water, on putting green, 
247. 

Through the green, 254. 
Clubs, 228. 
Course, 226. 

Covered in sand, ball, 253. 
Delay in water hazard, 256. 
Direction of hole may be pointed 

out, 234. 
Drive, 232. 
Dropped ball, 239. 
Fair green, 225, 227. 
Flags, 228, 264. 

To be left in hole, 246. 
Form, 230. 

Grip of clubs, 230. 
Four ball match, 235. 
General description, 225. 
Glossary, 267. 
Green, 225, 227, 228. 
Grip of clubs, 230. 
Grounding the club, 231. 

Not permissible in hazard, 232. 
Handicaps, 252. 

Bisque, 252. 
Hazards, 227, 242, 254. 

If ball moves after stance, 232. 

May not ground club in, 232. 

Rules for, 254. 

Water, 256. 
Hidden ball, 253. 
History, 264. 
Holes, 228. 

Direction may be pointed out, 
234. 
Holing out, 242. 

Assistance in, 246. 

Flag to be left in hole, 246. 

Rules for, 242. 
Honor at first tee, 237. 

At second and successive tees, 
238. 

Belonging to opponent, 237. 

In best ball and four ball 
matches, 237. 

In foursome, 237. 

In successive matches, 237. 



GOLF — Continued. 

Honor in threesome, 237. 

Out of turn, 237. 
Information, 262. 

Kinds of games, matches or com- 
petitions, 234. 
Lie of ball, must be played, 252. 
Lifting a ball, 260. 
Line of putt may not be marked, 

247. 
Links, 226. 

Care of, 228, 267. 
Lofting, 233. 

Loose implements, on putting 
green, may be moved, 247. 

Anywhere on links, 253. 
Lost balls, rules for, 261. 

May pass players looking for, 
241. 
Match play, 234. 
Motion, ball in, 257, 258, 259. 

Interference with, 258. 

If strike an opponent, 259. 
Moves, if ball, 257. 

Obstacles, 253. 
Moving a ball, 257. 
Moving obstacles, 282. 
Obstacles that may be moved, 

253. 
Officials, 2*63. 

Referee, 263. 

Umpire, 263. 
Order of individual play, on put- 
ting green, 243. 

Through the green, 238. 
Out of bounds, 241. 

Opponent's ball, 263. 
Out of turn, 238. 
Partners and opponents, 235. 
Penalty stroke, 234. 
Placed ball, 240. 
Playing a ball in motion, 257. 

Out of turn, 238. 

Through the green, 272. 

Wrong ball, 260. 
Pointing out direction of hole, 234. 
Precedence on the links, 236. 

Looking for lost balls, 236. 

Match playing entire round, 236. 

On putting green, 237, 243. 

Playing slowly, 236. 

Singles, threesome, foursome, 
236. 
Putting, 239, 242. 

Assistance in, 246. 

Flag stick to be left in hole, 
246. 

Knock opponent's ball into 
hole, 246. 

Line of putt may not be marked, 
247. 

Move competitor's ball, 245. 

Rules for, 242. 
Putting ball in play, summary of, 
239. 



620 



Index 



GOLF — Continued. 

Putting green, 225, 228, 242. 

Casual water on, 247. 

Loose implements on, may be 
moved, 247. 

No growing thing on, may be 
moved, 247. 

Precedence on, 237, 243. 
Referee, 263. 

Re-teeing ball, 239, 240, 241. 
Rough, the, 225, 228. 
Rules for strokes, 233. 

Ball, that apply to all parts of 
the game, 252. 
Sclaffing, 233. 
Score, 248. 

Handicaps, 251. 

Match play, 248. 

Stroke competition, 249. 

Tie, 249. 
Slicing the ball, 233. 
Specifications for ball, outfit, etc., 

263. 
Stance, 231. 

In hazard, 232. 
Sticks, see Clubs. 
Stroke, definition of, 232. 

For approach, 232. 

Drive, 232. 

Lofting, 233. 

Penalty, 234. 

Pulling the ball, 233. 

Putting, 233. 

Rules for, 233. 

Sclaffing, 233. 

Slicing, 233. 

Topping, 233. 
Stroke competition, 234. 
Stymie, 244. 
Teeing, 239. 
Teeing off, 239, 240. 

Ball falls off tee, 241. 
Tees 227. 

Three-ball match, 235. 
Through the green, 227, 242. 
Topping the ball, 233. 
Umpire, 263. 
Water hazards, 256. 
Wrong ball in hazards, 260. 

On putting green, 243, 261. 

Through the green, 261. 
GREEK STYLE DISCUS THROW, 
586. 



HAMMER THROW, 587. 
HANDBALL, 275. 

Ace, 281. 

Ace line, 275. 

Balls, 276, 282. 

Bibliography, 282. 

Court, indoor, 275. 
Outdoor, 276. 

Doubles, 280. 

Dress, 282. 



HANDBALL — Continued. 

Fouls, 280. 

General description, 275. 

Glossary, 283. 

Hinders, 279. 

History, 282. 

Hitting the ball, 277. 

Inner line, 276. 

Officials, 281. 
Referee, 281. 
Scorer, 281. 

Outfit, 282. 

Players, 277. 

Receiving, 278. 

Referee, 281. 

Rules, 279. 

Score, 281. 

Scorer, 281. 

Serving, 277. 

Singles, 277. 

Start, 277. 

Tell board, 276. 
Handbooks, see Bibliographies. 
Handicaps, 17. 
Hare and hounds, 513. 
Hazards, see Golf. 
Heats, 485, 553. 
HIGH JUMP, RUNNING, 562. 

Standing, 568. 
High schools. 

Games for boys, 9. 

For girls, 10. 

Junior athletes, 474. 

Novice, 474. 

Senior, 475. 

Weight classification, 476. 
Hinders, see Handball. 
HOCKEY, see Field Hockey and 

Ice Hockey. 
Home Run, Baseball, 40. 

Indoor baseball, 326. 
Honor, see Golf. 
How to inflate a ball, 23. 

Mark courts and fields, 26. 
HOP, STEP, AND JUMP, 561. 
HURDLE RACES, 538. 

Description of, 538. 

Distances, 538. 

Between hurdles, 540. 

Finish, 541. 

Form, 541. 

Hurdles, specifications for, 538. 

Records, 542. 

Speed, 542. 

The course, 540. 

The race, 541. 



ICE HOCKEY, 287. 

Bibliography, 310. 
Blocking, 296. 
Body checking, 288, 296. 
Captains, 293, 307. 
Center, 289. 
Championship games, 302. 



Index 



621 



ICE nOCKEY — Continued. 
Checking, 288, 296. 
Cover point, 289, 293. 
Cross-checking, 288, 296-7, 300. 
Dimensions of field and goal, 288. 
Duties of players, 291. 
Facing, 288, 293. 
Field, 288. 
Forwards, 289, 293. 
Fouls, 300. 

Offside play, 301. 

Penalties for, 301. 

Players, 300. 

Puck, 300. 

Sticks, 300. 

With cross, 300. 
General description, 287. 
Glossary, 311. 

Gloves, 309. 
Goal keeper, 289, 291. 
Goals, 288, 308. 
History, 310. 
Left center, 289. 
Left wing, 289. 
Leg guards, 309. 
Lifting the puck, 296. 
Match games, 302. 
Nets, 289, 308. 
Officials, 303. 
Offside play, 299, 301. 
Outfit, 308. 
Passing the puck, 296. 
Penalties, 301. 
Penalty time keeper, 307. 
Players, 289. 
Point, 289, 292. 
Puck, 309. . 

Lifting, 296. 

Methods of playing, 296. . 

Passing, 296. 
Referee, 303. 

Right and left centers, 289. 
Right and left wings, 289. 
Rules, 294. 
Score, 301. 
Shin guards, 309. 
Skates, 309. 
Start, 293. 
Sticks, 300, 309. 

Foul play with, 288, 296-7, 300. 
Specifications for and cost of, 
308. 
Substitutes, 291. 
Tackling, 288. 
Teams, 289. 
Ties, 302. 
Time keeper, 306. 
Umpires, 306. 
Wings, right and left, 289. 
Individual Competition, 11. 
Infield, see Baseball. 
Inflating a ball, 23. 
Innings, see Baseball. 
Inspectors, for track and field 
games, 496. 



Intercollegiate association of 
amateur athletes of 
America, 6, 8. 
Intercollegiate football, see Foot- 
ball, Intercollegiate. 
INDOOR BASEBALL, 315. 
Assist, 340. 
Balls, 323, 335. 

Specifications for, 342. 
Bases, 318. ^ 

Specifications for, 343. 
Baserunner, in general, 326. 

Entitled to base, 331. 

Forced run, 330. 

For first base, 328. 

For fourth base, 328. 

For second base, 328. 

For third base, 328. 

Is out, 331. 

May start, 329. 

Must return, 330. 

Overrunning bases, 328. 

Rules for, 328. 
Bat, specifications for, 343. 
Batsman, 321. 

Duties in general, 322. 

Entitled to first base, 325. 

Is out, 323, 325. 

Place for, 322. 

Rules for, summary of, 324. 

Should run for first base, 324. 
Bibliography, 344. 
Catcher, 337. 

Score for, 341. 
Coachers, 332. 
Coaching, 332. 
Diamond, dimensions, 318. 
Drawn game, 338. 
Dress, 344. 
Error, 340. 
Fair hit, 324. 
Field, dimensions, 318. 
Fielders, 336. 

Rules for, 337. 
Forced run, 330. 
Foul hit, 324. 
Foul lines, 319. 
General description, 315. 
Glossary, see Baseball. 
History, 344. 
Home plate, 343. 
Home run, 326. 
Infield, 318. 
Innings, 320. 
Match games, 342. 
Officials, 341. 
Outfit, 342. 

Overrunning bases, 328. 
Pitcher, in general, 333. 

Rules for, 334. 
Pitcher's box, 319. 

Score for, 340. 

Strikes and balls, 335, 

Throw, 334. 
Put out, 339. 



622 



Index 



INDOOR BASEBALL — Continued. 
Records, 339. 
Rules for batsmen, 334. 

Baserunners, 328. 
Score, 338. 
Stealing bases, 330. 
Strikes, 323, 335. 
Teams, 320. 

At bat, 321. 

In the field, 333. 
Three-foot limit, 328. 
Tie game, 338. 
Umpire, 341. 
Inspectors, track and field, 496. 



JAVELIN THROW, 492. 
Judge of walking, 497. 
Judges at finish, 498. 

Field, 500. 
Junior in track and field ath- 

letics 474 
JUMP, RUNNING BROAD, 553. 
RUNNING HIGH, 462. 
STANDING BROAD, 557. 
STANDING HIGH, 468. 
THREE STANDING BROAD, 
561. 

K 

Kick-off, see Football, Intercollegiate. 



Laced nails, 23. 
LA CROSSE, 347. 
Attack, 352, 354, 356. 
Ball, after a foul, 357. 

Facing, 357. 

Fouls, 361. 

Lodging, 358. 

Mode of playing, 358. 

Out of bounds, 357. 

Specifications, 370. 
Bibliography, 372. 
Blocking, 359. 
Body checking, 348, 359*, 
Center, 354. 
Center circle, 351. 
Change of goals, 363. 
Checking, 348, 359. 

Goal keeper, 353. 
Choice of goals, 356. 
Cover point, 355, 356. 
Covering, 351. 
Crosse, fouls, 360. 

Specifications for, 369. 

Use of, 360. 
Defense, 352, 355, 356. 
Detail duties of players, 352. 
Dimensions of goals and field, 349. 
Dress, 371. 
Facing, 348, 357. 

After a goal, 357. 



LA CnO^SE — Continued. 
Facing, ball lodging, 358. 

Out of bounds, 357. 
Field captains, 368. 
Field dimensions, 349. 
First attack, 354, 356. 
First defense, 355, 356. 
, Formation of teams, 356. 
Free throw, 363. 
Function of players, general, 351. 

Detail, 352. 
Fouls and penalties, 360. 

Ball, 361. 

Blocking, 361. 

Crosse and its use, 360. 

Free throw, 363. 

Penalties and procedure for, 362. 

Personal interference, 360. 

Players, 361. 

Summary of, 360. 
General description, 347. 
Goal crease, dimensions, 349. 

No attacking player within, 350. 
Goal keeper, 352, 356. 
Goals, 349, 370. 

Change of, 363. 

Score for, 363. 
Glossary, 373. 
History, 371. 
Home, 353. 
Interference with opponents, 359, 

360. 
Inside home, 353, 356. 
Line up, 356. 
Lodging a ball, 358. 
Mode of playing the ball, 358. 
Net, 349, 370. 
Officials, 364. 
Offside play, 348. 
Outfit, 369. 

Outside home, 353, 356. 
Penalties and procedure for fouls, 

362. 
Personal interference, 360. 
Point, 354, 356. 
Points of play, 358. 
Referee, 365. 
Rules, 358. 
Score, 363. 

Second attack, 354, 356. 
Second defense, 355, 356. 
Specifications for crosse and ball, 

369. 
Substitutes, 355. 
Tackling, 348. 
Teams, 351. 

Required number, 351. 
Third attack, 354, 356. 
Third defense, 355, 356. 
Tie game, 364. 
Time, 363. 
Timekeeper, 368. 
Umpire, 367. 
LAWN TENNIS, 379. 
Backstop. 382, 401. 



Index 



623 



LAWN TESKl^ — Continued. 
Ball, served into net, 387. 
Specifications for, 400. 
Touching a line, 385. 
Touching the net, 385, 386. 
Bibliography, 402. 
Choice of court or service, singles, 
383 

Doubles', 390. 
Court, dimensions and lines, 380. 

For doubles, 389. 
Deuce, 394. 

Dimensions of court, 380. 
Doubles, 382, 389. 
Dress, 401. 
Faults, 383 ff., 387. 

Summary of, 387. 
Foot fault, 384. 
Forfeited strokes, 387. 
Form in play, 393. 
Four-handed game, 389. 
Games all, 395. 
General description, 379. 
Glossary, 403. 
Good return, 386. 
Handicaps, 397. 
History, 402. 
Lets, 385, 387. 

Summary of, 388. 
Linesmen, 400. 
Loss of stroke, 388. 
Love, 395. 

Markers and tapes, 401. 
Match games, 397. 
Net, 382, 401. 

Ball touching, 385, 386. 

Served into, 387. 
Odds, 397. 
Officials, 398. 
Outfit, 400. 

Point in score, 394, 395. 
Post for net, 401. 
Press for racket, 400. 
Racket press, 400. 

Specifications, 400. 
Referee, 398. 
Return of ball, in doubles, 390. 

In singles, 386. 
Rules for service, 383. 

For striker out, 385. 
Score, 394. 
Score card, 396. 
Server, 379, 383. 

In wrong court, 383. 

Out of turn, 383. 
Service, 379, 383, 390. 

Choice of, in singles, 383. 

In doubles, 390. 

Description of, 383. 
Set, 395. 

Singles, 382, 383. 
Striker out, 385. 
Summary of faults, 387. 

Of forfeited strokes, 387. 

Of lets, 388. 



LAWN TENNIS — Contin tied. 

Tapes for marking, 401. 

Three-handed games, 382, 393. 

Touching the net, ball, 386. 

Umpire, 398. 

Vantage in, 395. 
Out, 395. 

Wrong court, 383. 
Let, see Lawn Tennis, and Squash 

Tennis. 
Links, see Golf. 
Love, see Lawn Tennis. 

M 

MARATHON RACE, 513, 519. 
Marking courts and fields, 26. 
Marsliall, track and field, 502. 
Match games, 14. 
MIDDLE DISTANCE AND DIS- 
TANCE TRACK RACES, 
519. 

Changes in gait, 523. 

Course, the, 520. 

Definition of, 519. 

Distances, 520. 

Finish, 523. 

Form, 521. 

Fouls, 523. 

Race, the, 522. 

Records, 524. 

Speed, 524. 

Start, 521. 

N 

National Collegiate Athletic Asso- 
ciation, 6. 
Non-Competitive awards, 46. 
Novice in track and field games, 

474. 
Elementary schools, 475. 
High schools, 475. 
Numbers for competitors, track 
and field athletics, 477. 



OFFICIALS, 18. See Officials under 
different games. 

Assistants, 503. 

Clerk of the course, 490. 

Field judges, 500. 

Inspectors, 496. 

Judge of walking, 497. 

Judges of finish, 498. 

Marshall, 502. 

Press steward, 502. 

Referee, 488. 

Scorer, 500. 

Starter, 492. 

Time keepers, 490. 
TRACK AND FIELD, 486. 
OfTside Play, see Field Hockey, Ice 
Hockey and Soccer Football. 



624 



Index 



On time for events, track and 
field, 478. See different 
games for penalties for late- 
ness. 

" On your mark," 493. 

Organization, athletic, 6. 

Organized athletics, 1. 



Penalty for false start, running 
races, 481. 
Place in running race, 478. 
POLE VAULT, 569. 
POLO (EQUESTRIAN), 409. 
Accidents, 419. 

To ponies, 419. 
Ball, 415. 

Fouls, 419. 

Method of playing, 415. 

Put in play, 412. 

Rules and fouls, 419. 

Specifications for, 424. 
Bibliography, 425. 
Blocking, 415. 
Captains, 423. 
Choice of ends, 412. 
Crooking, 415. 

Crossing the line of a player, 416. 
Dimensions of fields, 409. 
Dress, 424. 
Eligibility, 412. 

Field, dimensions and lines, 409. 
Field captains, 423. 
Formation of teams, 410. 
Fouls, 417. 

Accidents, 419. 

Ball, 419. 

Penalties, 417. 

Players, 418. 

Playing the ball, 419. 

Ponies, 418. 

Riding, 417. 

Summary of, 417. 
General description, 409. 
Glossary, 425. 
Goal, dimensions, 409. 

Posts, 424. 

Score, 419. 
Goal judges, 423. 
History, 424. 
Interference, 415. 
Interrupted game, 420. 
Judges, goal, 423. 
Mallets, crooking, 415. 

Fouls, 418. 

Rules for, 418. 

Specifications for, 424. 
Method of playing the ball, 415. 
Knock in, 413. 
Officials, 420. 

Offside, players to pass on, 416. 
Out of bounds, 414. 
Outfit, 424. 
Penalties, for fouls, 417. 



POLO (EQUESTRIAN)— Continued. 
Players, rules and fouls, 418. 
Playing the ball, rules for, 419. 
' Ponies, accidents to, 419. 
Measurements for, 423. 
Pulling up, 417. 
Putting the ball in place, 412. 
Referee, 421. 
Riding, 417. 
Right of way, 416. 
Blocking, 415. 
Crossing, 416. 
Interference, 415. 
Rules for knock in, 413. 
Out of bounds, 414. 
Pulling up, 417. 
Riding, 416. 
Right of way, 416. 
Safety, 414. 
Safety, 414. 

Score on, 420. 
Score, 419. 
Scorer, 423. 
Start, 413. 
Sticks, see Mallet. 
Crooking, 415. 
Substitutes, 410. 
Summary of fouls, 417. 
Accidents, 419. 
Ball, 419. 
Penalties, 417. 
Players, 418. 
Playing the ball, 419. 
Ponies, 418. 
Riding, 417. 
Teams, 410. 
Ties, 420. 
Time, 414. 
Timer, 422. 
Press steward, 502. 
Professional athletes, definition 

of, 4. 
Prizes, 18. 

Procedure, routine for competi- 
tion, 476. 
Protest, in races, 484. 
Public Schools Athletic League, 
New York, 9. 
Girls' branch of, 10. 
Puck, see Ice Hockey. 
Punt, 203. 

Punt out, football, 208. 
Put, shot, 577. 
Putting, see Golf. 



RACES, running, general procedure 
for, 478. See Relay Races, 
Rowing Races, Running 
Races, Sprint and Walking 
Races. 

Referee, 18, 488. 

Regatta, see Rowing Races. 

Registration of Athletes, 33, 476. 



Index 



625 



Report to clerk of course, 477. 
EELAY RACES, 526. 

Arrangement of teams, 529. 

Baton passing, 532. 

Course, the, 528. 

Description of, 526. 

Distance and teams, 528. 

Finish, 533. 

Fouls, 534. 

Handicapping, 531. 

Heats, 533. 

Inspectors, 535. 

Officials, 535. 

Passing the baton, 532. 

Race, the, 532. 

Records, 536. 

Rules, 534. 

Speed, 536. 

Start, 531. 

Teams, arrangement of, 529. 

Touch-off, 532. 
Round Robin series, 15. 
Routine for competitors, tracic 

and field, 478. 
Rugby, 181. 
RUNNING RACES, 473, 478. 

Crouching start, 479. 

Cross country run, 545. 

Dash, 514. 

Distance races, 519. 

Distances of different races, 513. 

False start, 481. 

Finish, 484. 

Form, 479. 

Fouls, 482. 

General description, 478. 

General procedure, 473. 

Heats, 485. 

Hurdle races, 438. 

Kinds and distances, 513. 

Marathon, 519. 

Middle distance races, 519. 

Officials, 486. 

Penalties for false start, 481. 

Protests, 484. 

Referee, 488. 

Relay races, 526. 

Signals for start, 481. 

Sprint race, 514. 

Start, 479. 

Crouching, 479. 
Standing, 480. 
RUNNING BROAD JUMP, 553. 
RUNNING HIGH JUMP, 557. 
RUNNING HOP, STEP AND 

JUMP, 561. 
ROWING RACES, 601. 

Bibliography, 612. 

Classification of scullers, 602. 

Course, 601. 

Coxswain, 603. 

Crews, 601. 

Dress, 610. 

Glossary, 613. 

History, 612. 

2S 



ROWING RACES — Continued. 
Indoor rowing machines, 612. 
Machines, rowing, 612. 
Officials, 603. 
Outfit, 610. 
Race, 604. 
Regattas, 603. 
Scull, 602. 
Shells, 610. 
Start, 606. 
Steering, 609. 
Stroke, 603, 606. 



Safety in football, 211. 

In polo, 414, 420. 
Score, track and field, 504. 

See different ball games for their 
scores. 
Scorer, traclt and field, 500. 
Scrimmage, football, 194. 
Scullers, see Rowing Races. 
Senior in track and field games, 

474. 
Service, see Handball, Lawn Tennis, 

Squash Tennis, Volley Ball. 
Shortstop, baseball, 60. 
Shot put, 479. 
Signals, in baseball, 51. 
In football, 183. 
For start of running race, 481. 
Singles, see Handball and Lawn 

Tennis. 
SOCCER FOOTBALL, 429. 
Advancing the ball, 434. 
Ball, dropped by referee, 438. 
In play, 438. 
Methods of playing, 437. 
Specifications for, 446. 
Bibliography, 447. 
Captains, 432. 
Center, 432. 
. Charging, 439. 
Choice of sides, 432. 
Corner kick, 435. 

Goal not made from, 435. 
Corner kick area, 432. 
Cross bar, ball hitting, 434. 

Displaced, 434. 
Dimensions of field, 429. 
Dress, 446. 
Dropped ball, 438. 
Field, 429. 
Flags, 430, 446. 
Forward line, 432. 
Fouls, between plavers, 438, 439. 
To use hands, 435, 437, 438. 
Summary of, 443. 
Free kick, 437. 

Goal from, 434. 
Full backs, 432. 
General description, 429. 
Glossary, see Football, Intercol- 
legiate. 



626 



Index 



SOCCER FOOTBALL— Continued. 
Goal area, 430. 
Goal kick, 435. 
Goal keeper, 432. 
If hit, 434. 

May use hands on ball, 437. 
Goal net, 446. 
Goals, 430. 

How scored, 434. 
Not made from kick-off, 435. 
Half backs, 432. 
Inside right and left, 432. 
Kick-off, 433. 

Goal not made from, 435. 
Kicking, 432, 433, 437. 
Linesmen, 445. 
Making a goal, 434. 
Methods of playing the ball, 437. 
Methods and rules for players, 438. 
Net, 430. 
Officials, 444. 
Offside play, 400. 
Outfit, 446. 

Ojjtside right and left, 432. 
Penalty area, 430. 
Penalty for fouls, 439. 

Summary of, 443. 
Penalty kick mark,. 432. 
Place kick, 437. 

Players, methods, fouls, and rule^ 
for, 438. 
Offside and onside play, 440. 
Referee, 444. 
Score, 436. 
Shoes, 446. 
Start, 433. 
Summary of fouls and penalties, 

443. 
Teams, 432. 
Throw in, 437. 
Time, 435. 
SPRINT RACES, 514. 
Course, the, 514. 
Definition of, 514. 
Distances, 513, 514. 
Finish, 516. 
Form, 515. 
Fouls, 516. 
Protests, 517. 
Race, the, 515. 
Records, 517. 
Rules, 516. 
Speed records, 517. 
Start, 515. 
Stale, 2. 

Standards, amateur and profes- 
sional, 3. 
STANDING BROAD JUMP, 
557 
THREE STANDING BROAD 
JUMPS, 560. 
STANDING HIGH JUMP, 568. 
Station in race, 478. 
Sticks, see Field Hockey, Golf, Ice 
Hockey, Polo, 



Start of running race, 479. 

Crouching, 479. 
Standing, 480. 
Starter for race, 479, 481, 492. 
Steeplechase, 513. 
Strikes and balls, baseball, 41. 
Striking circle, field hockey, 145. 
SQUASH TENNIS, 451. 
Back wall line, 453. 
Ball, bounding, 457. 

Bounding in wrong court, 455. 

Fly, 457. 

Hitting a line, 455. 

Rules for, 456. 

Specifications for, 458. 

Volleying, 456. 
Bibliography, 459. 
Center line, 454. 
Choice of service, 454. 
Court, in general, 452. 

In detail, 452. 
Dress, 458. 
Faults. 455. 

Flooi line, ball hitting, 455. 
Floor service line, 454. 
Fly ball, 457. 
Gallery, 452. 
General description, 451. 
Glossary, see Handball, 
Hand-in, 454. 
Hand-out, 456. 

Rules for, 456. 
History, 458. 
Let, 457. 
Officials, 458. 
Outfit, 458. 

Measurements of court, 452. 
Metal tell-tale, 453. 
Playing the ball, 456. 
Rackets, specifications, 458. 
Returning the ball, 456. 
Rules for hand-out, 456. 

For service, 454. 
Score, 457. 
Server, rules for, 454. 
Service, 454. 

Rules for, 454. 
Service lines, 453, 454. 
Tell-tale, 453. 
Volleying, 456. 
Wall service line, 453. 



Tackle, in football, 190, 200. 

Team play, 12. 

Tee, teeing the ball, see Golf. 

Tell board, see Handball. 

THREE STANDING BROAD 

JUMPS, 561. 
THROWING THE DISCUS, 584. 
THROWING THE FIFTY-SIX 

POUND WEIGHT, 590. 
THROWING THE HAMMER, 

587, 



Index 



627 



THROWING THE JAVELIN, 

592 
TIME KEEPERS, 499. 

See Officials under various games. 
Touch down, see Football, Inter- 
collegiate. 
Tournaments, 15. 
TRACK AND FIELD EVENTS, 
473. 

Bibliography, 507. 

Definition of, 2. 

Glossary, 508. 

History, 505. 

List of, 473. 

Officials, 486. 

Score, 504. 

Ties, 503. 
Training, 2. 
Tropliies, 18. 



VAULT, POLE, 569. 
Vigor in athletics, 1. 
VOLLEY BALL, 463. 
Ball, dead, 467. 

How plaved, 467. 

Rules for, 467. 

Specifications for, 469. 
Bibliography, 470. 
Boundary lines, 463. 
Choice of courts or service, 465. 
Court, 463. 

Choice of, 465. 
Dribbling, 467. 
Formation of teams, 464. 
Fouls and penalties, 468. 

Receiving side, 468. 

Serving side, 468. 
General description, 463. 
Linesman, 469. 
Movable standards, 470. 
Net, 464. 

Players may not touch, 467. 

Specifications for, 470. 
Officials, 468. 
Outfit, 469. 
Penalties, 468. 
Places for players, 464. 
Players, may not touch net, 467. 

Number, 464. 

On time, 465. 

Rotation of, 464. 
Receiving side, 466. 

Penalized for fouls, 468. 



VOLLEY BALL — Continued. 
Referee, 468. 
Returning the ball, 466. 

See rules and score. 
Rotation of players, 464. 
Rules, 467. 
Score, 468. 
Service, 465. 

Rules for, 465. 

Penalties^for fouls in, 468. 
Substitutes, 465. 
Teams, 464. 

W 

Weighing in, 477. 

Weight classification of athletes, 

476. 
WEIGHT THROWING, section on, 

577. 
Baseball distance throw, 494. 
Basket ball, distance throw, 596. 
Discus throw, 584. 
Fifty-six pound weight, 590. 
Hammer throw, 587. 
Javelin, 592. 
Shot put, 579. 
Wings, see Field Hockey and Ice 

Hockey. 
WALKING RACES, 547. 

AS A COMPETITIVE TRACK 
EVENT, 547. 
Course, 547. 
Distances, 547. 
Finish, 548. 
Form, 548. 
Fouls, 548. 
Officials, 549. 
Records, 549. 
Start, 547. . 

The walk, 547. 
WALKING AS A 
PETITHE 
EVENT, 549. 
Women, athletics for, 6, 8. 
Women's colleges, athletics in, 
6, 8. 



Young Men's Christian Asso- 
ciation Athletic League, 

6, 8. 



NON-COM- 
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'np HE following pages contain advertisements of a 
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